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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Topic 1: Cryptography Fundamentals | - History and Evolution of Cryptography - Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption - Cryptographic Terminology |
| Topic 2: Cryptanalysis and Attacks | - Social Engineering Prevention - Brute Force and Dictionary Attacks - Common Attack Vectors |
| Topic 3: Applied Cryptography | - SSL/TLS Protocols - PGP and Email Encryption - Cryptographic Best Practices - VPN Security |
| Topic 4: Asymmetric Cryptography | - Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) - Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) - Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange - RSA Algorithm |
| Topic 5: Symmetric Cryptography | - Stream Ciphers - Key Management - Block Ciphers (AES, DES, 3DES) - Initialization Vectors (IV) |
| Topic 6: Hashing and Digital Signatures | - Message Authentication Codes (MAC) - Hash Functions (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256) - Digital Signature Standards |
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NEW QUESTION # 57
(What is modular arithmetic in cryptography?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Modular arithmetic is the mathematics of working with remainders after division by a fixed number called the modulus. In cryptography, it underpins many core constructions because it defines arithmetic in finite sets (rings and fields) where values "wrap around," enabling stable, repeatable operations with bounded results.
Public-key systems like RSA rely on modular exponentiation (raising integers to powers modulo a composite number), while Diffie-Hellman and many elliptic-curve schemes operate in groups defined by modular arithmetic properties. Encryption and key exchange use modular operations because they allow efficient computation forward (e.g., exponentiation modulo a large number) while making certain inverse problems computationally hard without secret information (e.g., factoring or discrete logarithms). Modular reduction also helps keep intermediate values manageable and supports group properties needed for proofs of security.
Although modular arithmetic is not "encryption by itself," it is a foundational method used inside encryption algorithms and protocols. Therefore, among the options, describing it as a method used for encryption via modular operations best matches cryptographic usage.
NEW QUESTION # 58
(What is a component of a one-time password (OTP) that is needed to guess future iterations of passwords?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
OTP systems (such as HOTP and TOTP) generate a sequence of passwords using a shared secret and a moving factor (counter or time). The critical secret that underpins the ability to compute past or future OTP values is the seed (also called the shared secret key). In HOTP, the seed is used with an HMAC function and an incrementing counter; in TOTP, the seed is used with HMAC and a time-step value. If an attacker obtains the seed and knows the algorithm and moving factor, they can compute future OTPs. The "function" and
"encryption algorithm" are typically standardized and public; security relies on keeping the seed secret. An initialization vector is not a standard OTP component in HOTP/TOTP generation. Therefore, the component needed to predict future OTP values is the seed. Protecting the seed is essential: it should be stored securely (e.
g., hardware token secure storage) and transmitted only through controlled provisioning processes. If compromised, OTP becomes predictable and no longer serves as a strong second factor.
NEW QUESTION # 59
(Which default port must be allowed by firewalls for the key exchange of the IPsec handshaking process to be successful?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
IPsec's initial key exchange is commonly performed using IKE (Internet Key Exchange), which negotiates Security Associations (SAs), authenticates peers, and establishes shared keys for ESP/AH protection. The traditional and default transport for IKEv1 and IKEv2 is UDP port 500. During negotiation, peers exchange proposals (crypto suites), perform Diffie-Hellman to derive key material, and authenticate using pre-shared keys, certificates, or EAP methods. If a firewall blocks UDP 500, the IKE negotiation cannot begin, preventing IPsec tunnels from forming. In many real deployments, NAT traversal is also used; in that case, traffic typically shifts to UDP 4500 (NAT-T) after detection of NAT, but UDP 500 is still required for the initial exchange and NAT detection in many configurations. TCP
500 is not standard for IKE. Port 443 is associated with HTTPS/TLS and some SSL VPNs, not IPsec IKE. Therefore, among the options provided, the firewall must allow UDP 500 for IPsec key exchange to succeed.
NEW QUESTION # 60
(What is the length (in bits) of a SHA-1 hash output?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
SHA-1 (Secure Hash Algorithm 1) produces a fixed-size output of 160 bits (20 bytes). Hash output size matters in cryptography because it influences collision resistance and the effort required for various attacks.
For an ideal n-bit hash, finding a collision by generic means is expected around 2