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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Topic 1: Symmetric Encryption | - AES and legacy algorithms (e.g., DES conceptually) - Block and stream ciphers |
| Topic 2: Asymmetric Encryption | - RSA and ECC fundamentals - Public key cryptography principles |
| Topic 3: Foundations of Cryptography | - Core concepts of confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Historical and modern cryptography principles |
| Topic 4: Hash Functions and Message Authentication | - MAC and HMAC mechanisms - Cryptographic hash functions (e.g., SHA family concepts) |
| Topic 5: Cryptographic Protocols and Applications | - Secure communication design principles - TLS/SSL conceptual overview |
| Topic 6: Key Management and PKI | - Key exchange and lifecycle management - Certificates, certificate authorities, and PKI structure |
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NEW QUESTION # 66
(What is the correlation between the number of rounds and the key length used in the AES algorithm?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
In AES, the number of rounds is explicitly tied to the key length. AES-128 uses 10 rounds, AES-192 uses 12 rounds, and AES-256 uses 14 rounds. The purpose of additional rounds is to increase diffusion and confusion, strengthening resistance against cryptanalysis as the key schedule and state transformations iterate more times. Although key length primarily affects brute-force resistance, AES's designers and standardization parameters link longer keys with more rounds to maintain security margins across variants, especially considering differences in the key schedule structure. Thus, as key length increases from 128 to 192 to 256 bits, the number of rounds increases correspondingly from 10 to
12 to 14. This relationship is fixed by the AES specification and does not vary dynamically at runtime.
Therefore, the correct correlation is that the number of rounds increases as the key length increases.
NEW QUESTION # 67
(What is a characteristic of Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) mode in cryptography?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
CBC mode introduces chaining between blocks to prevent the pattern leakage inherent in ECB. In CBC, each plaintext block is XORed with the previous ciphertext block before being encrypted with the block cipher. For the first block, CBC uses an Initialization Vector (IV) to serve as the "previous ciphertext" input. This makes encryption of each block dependent on the previous block's ciphertext, which is exactly the defining characteristic described in option A. CBC does not generate a continuous stream of key material-that describes stream ciphers or stream-like modes such as CTR/OFB. CBC also does not require a different key per operation; the same symmetric key is reused, while the IV must be fresh/unpredictable to ensure semantic security. The block size is determined by the underlying block cipher (e.g., AES is 128-bit blocks, DES/3DES are 64-bit blocks), not a fixed 32-bit size for CBC itself. Because CBC is not inherently authenticated, best practice is to pair it with a MAC (Encrypt-then-MAC) or use an AEAD mode instead.
NEW QUESTION # 68
(What are the primary characteristics of Bitcoin proof of work?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Bitcoin's proof of work (PoW) is designed so that finding a valid block is computationally difficult, but checking validity is computationally easy. Miners must repeatedly hash candidate block headers (double SHA-256) with different nonces until they find a hash value below a network-defined target.
This trial-and-error search requires significant work and energy because the probability of success per attempt is extremely low at current difficulty levels. However, verification is straightforward: any node can hash the block header once (or a small number of times) and confirm the resulting hash meets the target threshold and that the block contents follow protocol rules. This "hard to produce, easy to verify" property is essential: it makes it expensive for attackers to rewrite history or outpace honest miners, while allowing all participants-even low-power devices-to validate blocks efficiently.
Therefore, the primary characteristic of Bitcoin proof of work is that it is difficult to produce and easy to verify.
NEW QUESTION # 69
(Which type of network were VPN connections originally designed to tunnel through?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is designed to create a secure, private communication channel over an otherwise untrusted or shared infrastructure. Historically and conceptually, VPNs were built to allow organizations and users to transmit sensitive traffic across the public Internet while maintaining confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity. The "virtual" aspect means the network behaves like a private link, but the underlying transport is typically a public network where attackers could potentially observe or tamper with traffic. VPN technologies such as IPsec and SSL/TLS-based VPNs encapsulate packets and apply encryption and authentication so that the payload and session metadata are protected even when traversing public routing domains. Options like "encrypted" and "protected" describe properties of the VPN tunnel itself rather than the underlying network it traverses; the VPN provides encryption/protection precisely because the medium is not inherently secure. "Private" would describe a dedicated internal network, which generally does not require a VPN to achieve basic confidentiality. Therefore, VPNs were originally designed to tunnel through public networks.
NEW QUESTION # 70
(Which attack may take the longest amount of time to achieve success?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
A brute-force attack exhaustively tries every possible key or password candidate until the correct one is found. Because it explores the full search space (or a very large portion of it), brute force is often the slowest method, especially when strong keys, long passwords, rate limits, and slow password hashing (bcrypt
/Argon2) are used. By contrast, a dictionary attack reduces work by trying only common or likely passwords, often succeeding quickly against weak human-chosen secrets. Rainbow table attacks shift work into precomputation; once a table exists, lookup can be faster than brute-force-though salt and modern hashing defeat them. Birthday attacks are about finding collisions, not necessarily recovering a specific secret, and their expected work is about 2