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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Topic 1: Hashing and Digital Signatures | - Message Authentication Codes (MAC) - Digital Signature Standards - Hash Functions (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256) |
| Topic 2: Asymmetric Cryptography | - Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) - Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange - RSA Algorithm - Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) |
| Topic 3: Cryptography Fundamentals | - History and Evolution of Cryptography - Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption - Cryptographic Terminology |
| Topic 4: Symmetric Cryptography | - Block Ciphers (AES, DES, 3DES) - Key Management - Initialization Vectors (IV) - Stream Ciphers |
| Topic 5: Applied Cryptography | - SSL/TLS Protocols - Cryptographic Best Practices - PGP and Email Encryption - VPN Security |
| Topic 6: Cryptanalysis and Attacks | - Brute Force and Dictionary Attacks - Social Engineering Prevention - Common Attack Vectors |
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NEW QUESTION # 63
(What are the roles of keys when using digital signatures?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Digital signatures provide integrity, authenticity, and typically non-repudiation by using an asymmetric key pair. The signer uses the private key to create a signature over a message (usually over a hash/digest of the message). Because the private key is kept secret, only the legitimate signer should be able to produce a valid signature. Anyone who has the corresponding public key can then validate the signature: they verify that the signature matches the message digest under the public key and that the signed data has not been altered. This is why the public key can be widely distributed (often inside an X.509 certificate) while the private key must be protected by the signer. If a public key were used to sign, anyone could forge signatures; if a private key were required for validation, only the signer could validate, defeating the purpose of public verifiability.
Therefore, the correct key roles are private key for signing and public key for signature validation.
NEW QUESTION # 64
(What is the RC4 encryption key size when utilizing WPA with Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP)?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
WPA with TKIP was designed as an interim improvement over WEP while still using the RC4 stream cipher for compatibility with legacy hardware. TKIP addresses WEP's major weaknesses by introducing per-packet key mixing, a message integrity mechanism ("Michael"), and replay protection.
In TKIP, the encryption key used with RC4 is 128 bits. Practically, TKIP derives a per-packet RC4 key from a 128-bit temporal key (TK), the transmitter's MAC address, and a sequence counter (TKIP Sequence Counter, TSC) to avoid the simple IV reuse patterns that made WEP easy to break. Even with these improvements, TKIP has known weaknesses and is deprecated in favor of WPA2/WPA3 using AES-based CCMP/GCMP. But strictly for the question asked, TKIP's RC4 keying material is based on a 128-bit key size, not 40/56-bit legacy sizes and not 256-bit.
NEW QUESTION # 65
(What is modular arithmetic in cryptography?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
Modular arithmetic is the mathematics of working with remainders after division by a fixed number called the modulus. In cryptography, it underpins many core constructions because it defines arithmetic in finite sets (rings and fields) where values "wrap around," enabling stable, repeatable operations with bounded results.
Public-key systems like RSA rely on modular exponentiation (raising integers to powers modulo a composite number), while Diffie-Hellman and many elliptic-curve schemes operate in groups defined by modular arithmetic properties. Encryption and key exchange use modular operations because they allow efficient computation forward (e.g., exponentiation modulo a large number) while making certain inverse problems computationally hard without secret information (e.g., factoring or discrete logarithms). Modular reduction also helps keep intermediate values manageable and supports group properties needed for proofs of security.
Although modular arithmetic is not "encryption by itself," it is a foundational method used inside encryption algorithms and protocols. Therefore, among the options, describing it as a method used for encryption via modular operations best matches cryptographic usage.
NEW QUESTION # 66
(A security engineer is implementing device authentication as a form of two-factor authentication in a Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) environment. What should be used as a second form of authentication?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
In a PKI environment, a digital certificate is the standard credential used to bind an identity (user, device, service) to a public key, with that binding vouched for by a Certificate Authority. For device authentication, the device typically proves possession of the private key corresponding to the certificate' s public key (for example, during a TLS handshake). As a second factor in a two-factor model, a certificate (often stored in a TPM, smart card, or secure enclave) represents "something you have"-a cryptographic credential anchored to hardware or a managed endpoint. The other listed options (symmetric encryption, asymmetric encryption, digital signature) are cryptographic operations or algorithm classes, not stand-alone authentication factors. A digital signature is a mechanism used within authentication flows, but it is not itself the credential that establishes an enrolled device identity within PKI. In practice, a certificate-based device factor is commonly paired with a knowledge factor (password/PIN) or a biometric factor to achieve true 2FA, but among these choices, the appropriate second form of authentication in PKI terms is the digital certificate.
NEW QUESTION # 67
(What is the length (in bits) of a SHA-1 hash output?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
SHA-1 (Secure Hash Algorithm 1) produces a fixed-size output of 160 bits (20 bytes). Hash output size matters in cryptography because it influences collision resistance and the effort required for various attacks.
For an ideal n-bit hash, finding a collision by generic means is expected around 2
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