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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Asymmetric Encryption | - RSA and ECC fundamentals - Public key cryptography principles |
| Cryptographic Protocols and Applications | - TLS/SSL conceptual overview - Secure communication design principles |
| Key Management and PKI | - Key exchange and lifecycle management - Certificates, certificate authorities, and PKI structure |
| Foundations of Cryptography | - Core concepts of confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Historical and modern cryptography principles |
| Hash Functions and Message Authentication | - MAC and HMAC mechanisms - Cryptographic hash functions (e.g., SHA family concepts) |
| Symmetric Encryption | - AES and legacy algorithms (e.g., DES conceptually) - Block and stream ciphers |
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NEW QUESTION # 93
(What is the significance of the Nobody But Us (NOBUS) principle in cryptography?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
The NOBUS (Nobody But Us) principle is a controversial security notion suggesting that it is possible to introduce or maintain an access capability (often framed as a "backdoor" or exploitable weakness) that is effectively usable only by the party that designed it-typically a government or specific organization-while remaining infeasible for everyone else to exploit. In practice, NOBUS is invoked in debates about lawful access, surveillance, and exceptional access mechanisms: proponents claim that sophisticated entities can keep exploitation techniques secret and complex enough that adversaries cannot replicate them. Critics argue that this assumption is fragile because vulnerabilities can be independently discovered, reverse engineered, leaked, or eventually exploited as tools and knowledge spread. Moreover, once a weakness exists, it becomes a systemic risk: software and cryptographic systems are widely deployed and adversaries can invest heavily in finding and weaponizing the same flaw. Modern security engineering generally favors eliminating known weaknesses rather than relying on secrecy or assumed asymmetry of capability. Therefore, the best description of NOBUS is that a vulnerability is believed to be so difficult to exploit that only its creator can exploit it.
NEW QUESTION # 94
(Which cryptographic operation uses a single key?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Symmetric cryptography uses a single shared secret key for both encryption and decryption. This contrasts with asymmetric cryptography, which uses a key pair (public/private). Symmetric algorithms (like AES, ChaCha20) are efficient and well-suited for bulk data encryption, but they require a secure method for key distribution because both parties must possess the same secret. Hashing is not a keyed operation by default (though HMAC is keyed); it maps arbitrary data to a fixed-size digest and is primarily used for integrity checking, fingerprints, and password hashing constructions. Padding is a data formatting technique (e.g., PKCS#7) used to align plaintext to a block size; it is not a cryptographic "operation" that uses a key.
Therefore, the cryptographic operation characterized by using one key shared between parties is symmetric encryption. In real systems, symmetric encryption is frequently combined with asymmetric methods for key exchange and with MACs/AEAD for integrity, producing the standard hybrid approach used in protocols like TLS and IPsec.
NEW QUESTION # 95
(What describes a true random number generator?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
A true random number generator (TRNG) draws randomness from physical phenomena that are inherently unpredictable and not algorithmically reproducible. Because of this, it is nondeterministic: you cannot feed it the same "input" and expect the same output stream. TRNGs are often slower than PRNGs because they depend on collecting entropy from hardware sources and may require conditioning to remove bias. This aligns with option B: slow and nondeterministic, producing different results even under similar or repeated conditions. Option A describes a deterministic PRNG, where identical seeds yield identical sequences. Option C is unrelated; factorization is a hard math problem used in cryptography (e.g., RSA security assumptions), not a randomness generator definition. Option D describes a counter, which is deterministic and not random.
In secure systems, TRNG output may seed a cryptographically secure PRNG to provide both unpredictability and high throughput; but the defining characteristic of a TRNG is nondeterminism from physical entropy.
Therefore, option B is correct.
NEW QUESTION # 96
(What are the roles of keys when using digital signatures?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Digital signatures provide integrity, authenticity, and typically non-repudiation by using an asymmetric key pair. The signer uses the private key to create a signature over a message (usually over a hash
/digest of the message). Because the private key is kept secret, only the legitimate signer should be able to produce a valid signature. Anyone who has the corresponding public key can then validate the signature: they verify that the signature matches the message digest under the public key and that the signed data has not been altered. This is why the public key can be widely distributed (often inside an X.
509 certificate) while the private key must be protected by the signer. If a public key were used to sign, anyone could forge signatures; if a private key were required for validation, only the signer could validate, defeating the purpose of public verifiability. Therefore, the correct key roles are private key for signing and public key for signature validation.
NEW QUESTION # 97
(An organization wants to digitally sign its software to guarantee the integrity of its source code. Which key should the customer use to decrypt the digest of the source code?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
When software is digitally signed, the organization computes a cryptographic hash (digest) of the software (or its manifest) and then signs that digest using the organization's private key. Verification works in the opposite direction: the customer (verifier) uses the organization's public key to validate the signature and recover
/confirm the signed digest, then independently hashes the received software and compares the result. If the digests match and the signature validates under the public key, the customer has strong assurance that the software has not been altered since it was signed and that it was signed by the holder of the corresponding private key. The customer never needs the organization's private key-sharing it would destroy security and enable forgery. Likewise, the customer's own keys are irrelevant to verifying the publisher's signature. The organization's public key is typically delivered inside a certificate chain (code signing certificate) so the verifier can also validate publisher identity and trust. Therefore, the customer uses the organization's public key for signature verification (often described as "decrypting" the signed digest).
NEW QUESTION # 98
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