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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key - Historical evolution and modern applications |
| Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction |
| Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models - Principles: public/private key pairs - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation - Digital signatures: purpose and process |
| Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes - Standards and compliance |
| Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges - Principles and operation - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) |
| Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 - HMAC construction and application |
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NEW QUESTION # 31
(Two people want to communicate through secure email. The person creating the email wants to ensure only their friend can decrypt the email. Which key should the person creating the email use to encrypt the message?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
To ensure confidentiality so that only the intended recipient can decrypt an email, the sender must encrypt in a way that only the recipient can reverse. In public key cryptography, that means encrypting with the recipient's public key. The recipient is the only party who should possess the matching private key, so only they can decrypt the ciphertext. This pattern is fundamental to PKI-based secure email systems such as S/MIME and OpenPGP: the sender looks up or is provided the recipient's certificate/public key, encrypts the message (often by encrypting a randomly generated symmetric session key with the recipient's public key), and the recipient uses their private key to recover the session key and decrypt the content. Encrypting with the sender' s private key would not provide confidentiality; it resembles signing because anyone with the sender's public key could "decrypt" it. Encrypting with a private key of the recipient is also incorrect because private keys are not shared and should never leave the recipient's control. Therefore, the correct key to encrypt the message so only the friend can decrypt it is the recipient's public key.
NEW QUESTION # 32
(What are the primary characteristics of Bitcoin proof of work?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Bitcoin's proof of work (PoW) is designed so that finding a valid block is computationally difficult, but checking validity is computationally easy. Miners must repeatedly hash candidate block headers (double SHA-256) with different nonces until they find a hash value below a network-defined target.
This trial-and-error search requires significant work and energy because the probability of success per attempt is extremely low at current difficulty levels. However, verification is straightforward: any node can hash the block header once (or a small number of times) and confirm the resulting hash meets the target threshold and that the block contents follow protocol rules. This "hard to produce, easy to verify" property is essential: it makes it expensive for attackers to rewrite history or outpace honest miners, while allowing all participants-even low-power devices-to validate blocks efficiently.
Therefore, the primary characteristic of Bitcoin proof of work is that it is difficult to produce and easy to verify.
NEW QUESTION # 33
(Which cryptographic operation uses a single key?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Symmetric cryptography uses a single shared secret key for both encryption and decryption. This contrasts with asymmetric cryptography, which uses a key pair (public/private). Symmetric algorithms (like AES, ChaCha20) are efficient and well-suited for bulk data encryption, but they require a secure method for key distribution because both parties must possess the same secret. Hashing is not a keyed operation by default (though HMAC is keyed); it maps arbitrary data to a fixed-size digest and is primarily used for integrity checking, fingerprints, and password hashing constructions. Padding is a data formatting technique (e.g., PKCS#7) used to align plaintext to a block size; it is not a cryptographic "operation" that uses a key. Therefore, the cryptographic operation characterized by using one key shared between parties is symmetric encryption. In real systems, symmetric encryption is frequently combined with asymmetric methods for key exchange and with MACs/AEAD for integrity, producing the standard hybrid approach used in protocols like TLS and IPsec.
NEW QUESTION # 34
(What is the value of 51 mod 11?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
The value 51 mod 11 is the remainder after dividing 51 by 11. Modular arithmetic is widely used in cryptography to keep computations within a finite set of residues, such as in RSA where values are taken modulo n, or in Diffie-Hellman where exponents and group elements are reduced modulo a prime. To compute 51 mod 11, find the largest multiple of 11 less than or equal to 51. Multiples of 11 are 11, 22, 33, 44, 55. The closest without exceeding 51 is 44. Subtracting gives 51 # 44 = 7, so the remainder is 7. Therefore, 51 mod 11 = 7, matching option "07." This remainder is always in the range
0 through 10 because the modulus is 11. Such residue computations underpin the "wraparound" behavior that makes modular exponentiation and inverse computations well-defined in cryptographic groups.
NEW QUESTION # 35
(What describes a true random number generator?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
A true random number generator (TRNG) draws randomness from physical phenomena that are inherently unpredictable and not algorithmically reproducible. Because of this, it is nondeterministic: you cannot feed it the same "input" and expect the same output stream. TRNGs are often slower than PRNGs because they depend on collecting entropy from hardware sources and may require conditioning to remove bias. This aligns with option B: slow and nondeterministic, producing different results even under similar or repeated conditions. Option A describes a deterministic PRNG, where identical seeds yield identical sequences. Option C is unrelated; factorization is a hard math problem used in cryptography (e.g., RSA security assumptions), not a randomness generator definition. Option D describes a counter, which is deterministic and not random.
In secure systems, TRNG output may seed a cryptographically secure PRNG to provide both unpredictability and high throughput; but the defining characteristic of a TRNG is nondeterminism from physical entropy.
Therefore, option B is correct.
NEW QUESTION # 36
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