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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Cryptography Fundamentals | - Cryptographic Terminology - Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption - History and Evolution of Cryptography |
| Asymmetric Cryptography | - Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) - Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange - Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) - RSA Algorithm |
| Symmetric Cryptography | - Key Management - Initialization Vectors (IV) - Block Ciphers (AES, DES, 3DES) - Stream Ciphers |
| Hashing and Digital Signatures | - Hash Functions (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256) - Digital Signature Standards - Message Authentication Codes (MAC) |
| Applied Cryptography | - Cryptographic Best Practices - SSL/TLS Protocols - VPN Security - PGP and Email Encryption |
| Cryptanalysis and Attacks | - Common Attack Vectors - Social Engineering Prevention - Brute Force and Dictionary Attacks |
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NEW QUESTION # 94
(Why did the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) choose Ascon for lightweight cryptography?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
NIST's lightweight cryptography effort targets environments like IoT and embedded systems where CPU, memory, energy, and bandwidth are constrained, yet strong security is still required. Ascon is an authenticated encryption with associated data (AEAD) family designed to be efficient in both hardware and software with small footprint, making it well-suited for constrained devices. NIST selected Ascon because it offers a strong security design with good performance and implementability under tight resource budgets, while providing modern protections (confidentiality + integrity) through AEAD. That aligns with option C: secure and efficient encryption for resource-constrained devices. The selection was not primarily about authenticating users (that is typically handled by protocols and identity systems, not an AEAD primitive). It was also not mainly about legacy compatibility; lightweight cryptography aims at new and constrained deployments rather than preserving outdated stacks. And while Ascon can certainly be used to protect data at rest, that is only one application; the core reason for the choice is its suitability for constrained environments and robust, efficient authenticated encryption.
NEW QUESTION # 95
(What does nonrepudiation aim to achieve in the context of cryptography?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Nonrepudiation aims to prevent a party from later denying having performed an action, such as sending a message, approving a transaction, or signing a document. In cryptographic systems, nonrepudiation is typically supported by digital signatures, audit logs, and trusted time-stamping: if a message is signed with a private key and verified with the corresponding public key (often bound to an identity via a certificate), the signer can be held accountable for that signed content. This creates evidence that can be used for dispute resolution, compliance, and legal or contractual enforcement. Nonrepudiation is distinct from confidentiality (keeping data secret) and from access control (preventing unauthorized use). While authentication (verifying identity) is related and often a prerequisite, the defining goal is accountability-ensuring that actions can be attributed to entities in a way that is difficult to dispute later. Effective nonrepudiation also depends on secure private key management, certificate validation, and procedures that show the key was under the signer's control at the time. Therefore, the correct answer is holding parties accountable for their actions and transactions.
NEW QUESTION # 96
(What is a digital signature?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
A digital signature is a cryptographic mechanism that enables a recipient to verify who created a message (authenticity) and that the message has not been altered (integrity). It is typically built using asymmetric cryptography: the signer uses a private key to sign a hash (digest) of the message, producing a signature.
Anyone with the signer's public key can verify that the signature matches the message digest, confirming the signature was created by the corresponding private key and that the content remains unchanged. Digital signatures do not primarily provide confidentiality; the signed message may still be readable unless separately encrypted. They also support nonrepudiation in many operational contexts because a valid signature can be strong evidence that the private key holder authorized the signed data, assuming key protection and policy controls. Common digital signature algorithms include RSA-PSS, ECDSA, and EdDSA. Certificates (X.509) are often used to bind public keys to identities, allowing verifiers to trust the claimed signer. Therefore, the best definition is a technique to verify authenticity and integrity.
NEW QUESTION # 97
(Which cryptographic operation uses a single key?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
Symmetric cryptography uses a single shared secret key for both encryption and decryption. This contrasts with asymmetric cryptography, which uses a key pair (public/private). Symmetric algorithms (like AES, ChaCha20) are efficient and well-suited for bulk data encryption, but they require a secure method for key distribution because both parties must possess the same secret. Hashing is not a keyed operation by default (though HMAC is keyed); it maps arbitrary data to a fixed-size digest and is primarily used for integrity checking, fingerprints, and password hashing constructions. Padding is a data formatting technique (e.g., PKCS#7) used to align plaintext to a block size; it is not a cryptographic "operation" that uses a key. Therefore, the cryptographic operation characterized by using one key shared between parties is symmetric encryption. In real systems, symmetric encryption is frequently combined with asymmetric methods for key exchange and with MACs/AEAD for integrity, producing the standard hybrid approach used in protocols like TLS and IPsec.
NEW QUESTION # 98
(A Linux user password is identified as follows:
$2a$08$AbCh0RCM8p8FGaYvRLI0H.Kng54gcnWCOQYIhas708UEZRQQjGBh4
Which hash algorithm should be used to salt this password?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
The string format $2a$08$... is a well-known identifier for the bcrypt password hashing scheme. In common password-hash notation, the prefix indicates the algorithm and parameters: "$2a$" denotes bcrypt (version 2a), and "08" indicates the cost factor (work factor) controlling how computationally expensive hashing is. bcrypt is designed specifically for password storage: it includes a built-in salt and is intentionally slow and adaptive, making brute-force and GPU attacks far more expensive than fast general-purpose hashes like MD5 or SHA-512. NTLM and MD5 are obsolete for secure password storage due to speed and known weaknesses. SHA-512, while cryptographically strong as a hash, is still too fast for password hashing unless used in a dedicated password-hashing construction (e.g., PBKDF2, scrypt, Argon2) with appropriate parameters and salts. Since the given hash clearly matches bcrypt's encoding, the correct algorithm is bcrypt, which incorporates salting and cost-based key stretching as part of its design.
NEW QUESTION # 99
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