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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Asymmetric Cryptography | - RSA Algorithm - Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) - Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) - Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange |
| Applied Cryptography | - VPN Security - Cryptographic Best Practices - SSL/TLS Protocols - PGP and Email Encryption |
| Hashing and Digital Signatures | - Hash Functions (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256) - Digital Signature Standards - Message Authentication Codes (MAC) |
| Cryptography Fundamentals | - History and Evolution of Cryptography - Cryptographic Terminology - Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption |
| Symmetric Cryptography | - Block Ciphers (AES, DES, 3DES) - Stream Ciphers - Initialization Vectors (IV) - Key Management |
| Cryptanalysis and Attacks | - Social Engineering Prevention - Common Attack Vectors - Brute Force and Dictionary Attacks |
>> Introduction-to-Cryptography Quiz <<
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NEW QUESTION # 84
(Which mode of encryption converts data into a stream encryption and then uses a counter value and a nonce to encrypt the data?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
CTR (Counter) mode converts a block cipher into a stream-like encryption method by generating a keystream from encrypted counter blocks. The core idea is to construct a sequence of input blocks using a nonce (unique per message/session) plus an incrementing counter. Each nonce||counter block is encrypted with the block cipher under the shared key; the output is a pseudorandom block that is XORed with plaintext to produce ciphertext. Decryption repeats the same keystream generation and XORs with ciphertext to recover plaintext. CTR offers practical benefits: it is highly parallelizable, supports precomputation of keystream blocks, and allows random access to any block without needing previous blocks (unlike CBC). ECB and CBC are block modes that do not use nonce+counter keystream generation. CFB is a feedback mode that can behave stream-like, but it does not use the explicit counter/nonce construction characteristic of CTR. CTR's security hinges on never reusing the same nonce/counter sequence with the same key, because that would reuse the keystream and enable XOR-based plaintext recovery. Therefore, the correct mode is Counter (CTR).
NEW QUESTION # 85
(Which default port must be allowed by firewalls for the key exchange of the IPsec handshaking process to be successful?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
IPsec's initial key exchange is commonly performed using IKE (Internet Key Exchange), which negotiates Security Associations (SAs), authenticates peers, and establishes shared keys for ESP/AH protection. The traditional and default transport for IKEv1 and IKEv2 is UDP port 500. During negotiation, peers exchange proposals (crypto suites), perform Diffie-Hellman to derive key material, and authenticate using pre-shared keys, certificates, or EAP methods. If a firewall blocks UDP 500, the IKE negotiation cannot begin, preventing IPsec tunnels from forming. In many real deployments, NAT traversal is also used; in that case, traffic typically shifts to UDP 4500 (NAT-T) after detection of NAT, but UDP 500 is still required for the initial exchange and NAT detection in many configurations. TCP 500 is not standard for IKE. Port 443 is associated with HTTPS/TLS and some SSL VPNs, not IPsec IKE. Therefore, among the options provided, the firewall must allow UDP 500 for IPsec key exchange to succeed.
NEW QUESTION # 86
(A Linux user password is identified as follows:
$2a$08$AbCh0RCM8p8FGaYvRLI0H.Kng54gcnWCOQYIhas708UEZRQQjGBh4
Which hash algorithm should be used to salt this password?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
The string format $2a$08$... is a well-known identifier for the bcrypt password hashing scheme. In common password-hash notation, the prefix indicates the algorithm and parameters: "$2a$" denotes bcrypt (version
2a), and "08" indicates the cost factor (work factor) controlling how computationally expensive hashing is.
bcrypt is designed specifically for password storage: it includes a built-in salt and is intentionally slow and adaptive, making brute-force and GPU attacks far more expensive than fast general-purpose hashes like MD5 or SHA-512. NTLM and MD5 are obsolete for secure password storage due to speed and known weaknesses.
SHA-512, while cryptographically strong as a hash, is still too fast for password hashing unless used in a dedicated password-hashing construction (e.g., PBKDF2, scrypt, Argon2) with appropriate parameters and salts. Since the given hash clearly matches bcrypt's encoding, the correct algorithm is bcrypt, which incorporates salting and cost-based key stretching as part of its design.
NEW QUESTION # 87
(Which operation can be performed on a certificate during the "Issued" stage?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
The "Issued" stage in a certificate lifecycle indicates that the certificate has been generated and signed by the issuing CA and is now valid for use (subject to validity dates, policy constraints, and revocation status). At this point, the operational focus shifts from creating the certificate to making it available to the subject and relying parties. "Distribution" is the lifecycle activity most directly associated with an issued certificate:
installing it on servers or endpoints, provisioning it into keystores, publishing it to directories if required, and ensuring the chain (intermediates) is accessible for validation. By contrast, "Creation" is earlier in the process (key generation, CSR creation, identity validation, issuance/signing). "Key recovery" and "key archiving" relate to private key management and escrow policies (often for encryption keys, not signing keys), and are governed by organizational policy and key management systems rather than the certificate's issued state itself.
A certificate can be distributed after issuance regardless of whether any key escrow features exist. Therefore, the operation that fits the certificate's "Issued" stage best is distribution of the issued credential for operational use.
NEW QUESTION # 88
(What is the maximum key size (in bits) supported by AES?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
AES supports three standardized key sizes: 128, 192, and 256 bits, with a fixed block size of 128 bits.
The maximum of these supported key sizes is 256 bits (AES-256). Key size affects resistance to brute- force key search: larger keys exponentially increase the search space. In practice, AES-128 is already considered strong against brute force with contemporary computing capabilities, while AES-256 is often chosen for compliance requirements, conservative security margins, or to hedge against future advances. AES-512 is not part of the AES standard; if 512-bit keys are desired, systems typically use different constructions (like using AES-256 in certain key-derivation or wrapping schemes) rather than changing AES itself. Therefore, the correct maximum supported AES key size is 256 bits.
NEW QUESTION # 89
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