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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Topic 1: Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Historical evolution and modern applications - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key |
| Topic 2: Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP |
| Topic 3: Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication - HMAC construction and application - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function |
| Topic 4: Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) - Principles and operation |
| Topic 5: Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes - Standards and compliance - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities |
| Topic 6: Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models - Principles: public/private key pairs - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation - Digital signatures: purpose and process |
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NEW QUESTION # 38
(What describes how Counter (CTR) mode encryption functions?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
CTR mode turns a block cipher (like AES) into a stream-like construction by generating a keystream from successive encryptions of a changing input block. Specifically, CTR forms input blocks using a nonce (unique per message) combined with an increasing counter. Each nonce||counter block is encrypted with the block cipher under the shared key, producing a pseudorandom output block. That output is then XORed with plaintext to yield ciphertext (and XORed with ciphertext to recover plaintext). This design enables parallelization (blocks can be generated independently), efficient random access decryption, and avoids chaining dependencies seen in modes like CBC. Option B describes CFB-like behavior; option C describes ECB; option D describes CBC. CTR's security critically depends on never reusing the same nonce/counter sequence with the same key, because reuse would repeat keystream blocks and expose plaintext relationships.
Therefore, the correct description is that CTR converts the block cipher into a stream cipher using a counter value and a nonce.
NEW QUESTION # 39
(How is Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) commonly utilized in web browsers?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Web browsers rely on PKI to establish trust in secure connections, primarily through X.509 certificates and a built-in set of trusted root Certificate Authorities (CAs). When a browser connects to an HTTPS site, the server presents a certificate chain. The browser validates that chain up to a trusted root, checks that the certificate is valid for the domain (SAN/CN matching), confirms validity dates, and may check revocation status. This PKI process allows browsers to authenticate the website's identity and negotiate encrypted session keys for TLS, enabling confidentiality and integrity for the connection. In practical terms, the browser' s PKI components include certificate stores, validation logic, and mechanisms for handling intermediates, trust policies, and revocation. While PKI supports authentication as an outcome, the best description of how browsers utilize PKI is that they manage and validate digital certificates and associated keys to establish trust.
PKI is not about compressing messages or encrypting data at rest; it is about identity binding and trust chains that make secure web communication possible.
NEW QUESTION # 40
(What is the correlation between the number of rounds and the key length used in the AES algorithm?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
In AES, the number of rounds is explicitly tied to the key length. AES-128 uses 10 rounds, AES-192 uses 12 rounds, and AES-256 uses 14 rounds. The purpose of additional rounds is to increase diffusion and confusion, strengthening resistance against cryptanalysis as the key schedule and state transformations iterate more times. Although key length primarily affects brute-force resistance, AES's designers and standardization parameters link longer keys with more rounds to maintain security margins across variants, especially considering differences in the key schedule structure. Thus, as key length increases from 128 to 192 to 256 bits, the number of rounds increases correspondingly from 10 to 12 to 14. This relationship is fixed by the AES specification and does not vary dynamically at runtime. Therefore, the correct correlation is that the number of rounds increases as the key length increases.
NEW QUESTION # 41
(How are limits managed for the number of bitcoins that can be created and stored in a blockchain?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Bitcoin's supply is controlled by protocol rules enforced by consensus: new bitcoins enter circulation through the block subsidy awarded to miners for producing valid blocks. This subsidy is programmed to halve at fixed intervals (every 210,000 blocks), which steadily reduces the rate of new coin creation over time and asymptotically approaches a capped total supply (commonly cited as 21 million BTC).
This mechanism is often called the halving schedule and is the primary way limits are managed. The number of participants is not fixed; anyone can run a node or mine. There is no per-country cap and no per-person maximum enforced by the protocol-addresses and ownership are not limited that way. The supply cap emerges from the decreasing issuance schedule combined with consensus validation rules that reject blocks creating coins beyond what the schedule allows. Therefore, the correct answer is that limits are managed because rewards for mining reduce over time.
NEW QUESTION # 42
(An administrator has configured a Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection utilizing IPsec transport mode with Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) between a server in the corporate office and a client computer in the remote office. In which situation can the packet content be inspected?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
With IPsec ESP in transport mode, the payload of the original IP packet (typically the transport-layer segment and higher) is encrypted and integrity-protected between the two endpoints-here, the corporate server and the remote client. Because encryption is applied by the sending endpoint and removed only by the receiving endpoint, intermediate routers, switches, and monitoring devices in either network cannot view the protected payload while it is in transit. They may see outer IP headers and certain metadata needed for routing, but not the encrypted content protected by ESP. As a result, the packet's contents are inspectable only at the endpoints: before encryption on the sender (plaintext exists in memory/stack before IPsec processing) and after decryption on the receiver (plaintext is restored for the application). This is true whether the traffic traverses internal networks or the Internet; the cryptographic boundary is between the endpoints participating in the IPsec SA. Therefore, inspection of the actual content is possible only on the devices at headquarters and offsite, before sending and after receiving, not by in-transit networks.
NEW QUESTION # 43
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