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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes - Standards and compliance - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities |
| Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 - HMAC construction and application |
| Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges - Principles and operation - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish |
| Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation - Principles: public/private key pairs - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models - Digital signatures: purpose and process |
| Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle |
| Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Historical evolution and modern applications - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key |
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NEW QUESTION # 60
(What are the primary characteristics of Bitcoin proof of work?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Bitcoin's proof of work (PoW) is designed so that finding a valid block is computationally difficult, but checking validity is computationally easy. Miners must repeatedly hash candidate block headers (double SHA-256) with different nonces until they find a hash value below a network-defined target.
This trial-and-error search requires significant work and energy because the probability of success per attempt is extremely low at current difficulty levels. However, verification is straightforward: any node can hash the block header once (or a small number of times) and confirm the resulting hash meets the target threshold and that the block contents follow protocol rules. This "hard to produce, easy to verify" property is essential: it makes it expensive for attackers to rewrite history or outpace honest miners, while allowing all participants-even low-power devices-to validate blocks efficiently.
Therefore, the primary characteristic of Bitcoin proof of work is that it is difficult to produce and easy to verify.
NEW QUESTION # 61
(Which cryptographic operation uses a single key?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Symmetric cryptography uses a single shared secret key for both encryption and decryption. This contrasts with asymmetric cryptography, which uses a key pair (public/private). Symmetric algorithms (like AES, ChaCha20) are efficient and well-suited for bulk data encryption, but they require a secure method for key distribution because both parties must possess the same secret. Hashing is not a keyed operation by default (though HMAC is keyed); it maps arbitrary data to a fixed-size digest and is primarily used for integrity checking, fingerprints, and password hashing constructions. Padding is a data formatting technique (e.g., PKCS#7) used to align plaintext to a block size; it is not a cryptographic "operation" that uses a key.
Therefore, the cryptographic operation characterized by using one key shared between parties is symmetric encryption. In real systems, symmetric encryption is frequently combined with asymmetric methods for key exchange and with MACs/AEAD for integrity, producing the standard hybrid approach used in protocols like TLS and IPsec.
NEW QUESTION # 62
(Which number of bits gets encrypted each time encryption is applied during stream encryption?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
In the classical definition, a stream cipher encrypts data in very small units-often described as one bit at a time-by combining plaintext with a keystream (commonly via XOR). While many practical stream ciphers operate on bytes or words for efficiency, the conceptual distinction compared to block ciphers is that stream encryption processes data as a continuous stream rather than fixed-size blocks. This is why the standard teaching answer is "1 bit" per application of the keystream. Block ciphers, by contrast, encrypt blocks like 64 bits (DES/3DES) or 128 bits (AES) in each invocation of the block primitive. Options like 40, 192, and 256 are not typical stream cipher "per-step" processing sizes; 40 and 256 are often associated with key sizes, and
192 could be a key size for AES, not an encryption granularity. The essential security requirement for stream ciphers is that the keystream must be unpredictable and never reused with the same key/nonce combination; otherwise XOR properties allow attackers to recover relationships between plaintexts. Thus, the best answer is
1.
NEW QUESTION # 63
(Which lesson can be learned from organizations that experience breaches due to poor cryptographic practices?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Breaches tied to poor cryptographic practices often stem from preventable issues: outdated algorithms, weak key management, misconfigured TLS, missing integrity checks, hard-coded secrets, unrotated keys, or improper certificate validation. A key lesson is that organizations must proactively identify and prioritize these risks-exactly what comprehensive risk assessments are designed to do. Effective risk assessment inventories cryptographic assets (keys, certificates, protocols), maps them to business processes, evaluates threats (e.g., MITM, data exfiltration, supply-chain tampering), and finds gaps between current controls and best practices. It also helps ensure crypto decisions align with real-world risk, compliance requirements, and operational constraints. The other options are explicitly wrong: training is relevant because many crypto failures are implementation/configuration errors; audits and updates are essential because cryptographic guidance evolves; and security cannot be "secondary" without increasing breach likelihood and impact.
Therefore, the most defensible lesson is that comprehensive risk assessments are vital for identifying vulnerabilities before attackers exploit them.
NEW QUESTION # 64
(Which mechanism can be applied to protect the integrity of plaintext when using AES?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
AES by itself is a symmetric block cipher that provides confidentiality, but not guaranteed integrity unless used in an authenticated mode. To protect integrity of the plaintext (ensuring it has not been altered), a Message Authentication Code (MAC) can be applied. In the classic Encrypt-then-MAC pattern, the sender encrypts the plaintext with AES and then computes a MAC (often HMAC-SHA-256 or CMAC-AES) over the ciphertext (and relevant headers). The receiver verifies the MAC before attempting decryption, preventing tampering and many padding-oracle style vulnerabilities. Alternatively, AES can be used in an AEAD mode like AES-GCM, which produces an authentication tag serving a similar purpose, but among the listed options the general integrity mechanism is "MAC." RC4 is an unrelated stream cipher and does not provide integrity.
RSA is asymmetric and not the standard integrity add-on for AES-encrypted bulk data. Kerberos is an authentication protocol and key distribution system, not a message integrity primitive. Therefore, to protect plaintext integrity when using AES, the correct mechanism is a Message Authentication Code.
NEW QUESTION # 65
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