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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - HMAC construction and application - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function |
| Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities - Standards and compliance - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes |
| Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) - Principles and operation |
| Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation - Principles: public/private key pairs - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models - Digital signatures: purpose and process |
| Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Historical evolution and modern applications - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key |
| Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle |
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NEW QUESTION # 28
(How does a cryptographic policy contribute to incident response?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
A cryptographic policy defines how encryption, keys, certificates, and integrity mechanisms are used and managed across an organization. During incident response, that policy becomes a playbook for making safe, consistent decisions under pressure. It can specify how to rotate or revoke compromised keys, how to validate and reissue certificates, how to preserve evidence integrity with hashing, and how to securely communicate sensitive incident details (e.g., using approved encrypted channels). It can also define backup encryption requirements and key escrow or recovery procedures, enabling secure data recovery without exposing protected data. Policies typically outline roles and responsibilities (who can access keys, who can approve rekeying), logging requirements, and escalation steps-reducing confusion and preventing ad hoc crypto changes that might worsen exposure. The goal is not to limit encryption; it is to ensure cryptography is used correctly to contain and remediate incidents. Therefore, providing guidelines for secure recovery and communication is the correct contribution of cryptographic policy to incident response.
NEW QUESTION # 29
(Which is an example of asymmetric encryption?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Asymmetric cryptography uses a public/private key pair where different keys are used for related operations (encryption/decryption or signature/verification). Elliptic-Curve Cryptography (ECC) is a family of asymmetric algorithms built on the mathematics of elliptic curves over finite fields. ECC supports key exchange (ECDH), digital signatures (ECDSA/EdDSA), and other primitives with smaller key sizes for comparable security to traditional discrete-log or RSA systems (e.g., a 256-bit ECC key is often comparable in security to a 3072-bit RSA key, depending on scheme and parameters). By contrast, SHA-256 is a cryptographic hash function (one-way digest), and HMAC is a keyed integrity/authentication construction built from a hash function-neither is encryption. DES is a symmetric block cipher (same key for encryption and decryption). Therefore, the example of asymmetric encryption among the options is ECC.
NEW QUESTION # 30
(Which mode of encryption converts data into a stream encryption and then uses a counter value and a nonce to encrypt the data?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
CTR (Counter) mode converts a block cipher into a stream-like encryption method by generating a keystream from encrypted counter blocks. The core idea is to construct a sequence of input blocks using a nonce (unique per message/session) plus an incrementing counter. Each nonce||counter block is encrypted with the block cipher under the shared key; the output is a pseudorandom block that is XORed with plaintext to produce ciphertext. Decryption repeats the same keystream generation and XORs with ciphertext to recover plaintext. CTR offers practical benefits: it is highly parallelizable, supports precomputation of keystream blocks, and allows random access to any block without needing previous blocks (unlike CBC). ECB and CBC are block modes that do not use nonce+counter keystream generation. CFB is a feedback mode that can behave stream-like, but it does not use the explicit counter/nonce construction characteristic of CTR. CTR's security hinges on never reusing the same nonce/counter sequence with the same key, because that would reuse the keystream and enable XOR-based plaintext recovery. Therefore, the correct mode is Counter (CTR).
NEW QUESTION # 31
(What is a component of a one-time password (OTP) that is needed to guess future iterations of passwords?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
OTP systems (such as HOTP and TOTP) generate a sequence of passwords using a shared secret and a moving factor (counter or time). The critical secret that underpins the ability to compute past or future OTP values is the seed (also called the shared secret key). In HOTP, the seed is used with an HMAC function and an incrementing counter; in TOTP, the seed is used with HMAC and a time-step value. If an attacker obtains the seed and knows the algorithm and moving factor, they can compute future OTPs. The "function" and "encryption algorithm" are typically standardized and public; security relies on keeping the seed secret. An initialization vector is not a standard OTP component in HOTP
/TOTP generation. Therefore, the component needed to predict future OTP values is the seed.
Protecting the seed is essential: it should be stored securely (e.g., hardware token secure storage) and transmitted only through controlled provisioning processes. If compromised, OTP becomes predictable and no longer serves as a strong second factor.
NEW QUESTION # 32
(What is a characteristic of Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) mode in cryptography?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
CBC mode introduces chaining between blocks to prevent the pattern leakage inherent in ECB. In CBC, each plaintext block is XORed with the previous ciphertext block before being encrypted with the block cipher. For the first block, CBC uses an Initialization Vector (IV) to serve as the "previous ciphertext" input. This makes encryption of each block dependent on the previous block's ciphertext, which is exactly the defining characteristic described in option A. CBC does not generate a continuous stream of key material-that describes stream ciphers or stream-like modes such as CTR/OFB. CBC also does not require a different key per operation; the same symmetric key is reused, while the IV must be fresh/unpredictable to ensure semantic security. The block size is determined by the underlying block cipher (e.g., AES is 128-bit blocks, DES/3DES are 64-bit blocks), not a fixed 32-bit size for CBC itself. Because CBC is not inherently authenticated, best practice is to pair it with a MAC (Encrypt-then-MAC) or use an AEAD mode instead.
NEW QUESTION # 33
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