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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Topic 1: Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges - Principles and operation |
| Topic 2: Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes - Standards and compliance - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities |
| Topic 3: Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models - Principles: public/private key pairs - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman - Digital signatures: purpose and process |
| Topic 4: Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key - Historical evolution and modern applications - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation |
| Topic 5: Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication - HMAC construction and application |
| Topic 6: Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle |
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NEW QUESTION # 76
(Which number generator has different results given the same input data?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
A true random number generator (TRNG) produces outputs derived from nondeterministic physical processes (e.g., thermal noise, oscillator jitter, radioactive decay, or other hardware entropy sources). Because the underlying phenomenon is not algorithmically determined by an input seed in the same way as a PRNG, repeated "inputs" (or identical conditions from a software perspective) do not yield the same sequence; the outputs vary unpredictably. By contrast, a pseudorandom number generator (PRNG) is deterministic: given the same seed and internal state, it produces the same output sequence, which is useful for repeatability but means security depends on seed secrecy and proper seeding. "Prime" is not a generator type, and "sequence" is too generic and does not imply nondeterminism. In cryptographic systems, TRNGs (or hardware entropy sources) are often used to seed cryptographically secure PRNGs (CSPRNGs), combining high-quality entropy with efficient generation. Therefore, the generator that can produce different results for the "same input data" is a true random number generator.
NEW QUESTION # 77
(How is Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) commonly utilized in web browsers?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Web browsers rely on PKI to establish trust in secure connections, primarily through X.509 certificates and a built-in set of trusted root Certificate Authorities (CAs). When a browser connects to an HTTPS site, the server presents a certificate chain. The browser validates that chain up to a trusted root, checks that the certificate is valid for the domain (SAN/CN matching), confirms validity dates, and may check revocation status. This PKI process allows browsers to authenticate the website's identity and negotiate encrypted session keys for TLS, enabling confidentiality and integrity for the connection. In practical terms, the browser' s PKI components include certificate stores, validation logic, and mechanisms for handling intermediates, trust policies, and revocation. While PKI supports authentication as an outcome, the best description of how browsers utilize PKI is that they manage and validate digital certificates and associated keys to establish trust.
PKI is not about compressing messages or encrypting data at rest; it is about identity binding and trust chains that make secure web communication possible.
NEW QUESTION # 78
(How does adding salt to a password improve security?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
A salt is a unique, random value stored alongside a password hash and combined with the password during hashing. Its main security benefit is that it ensures identical passwords do not produce identical hashes across different accounts or systems. If two users choose the same password, their stored hashes will differ because their salts differ, which directly prevents attackers from spotting shared passwords by comparing hashes. Salts also defeat precomputation attacks such as rainbow tables, because an attacker would need to regenerate tables for each possible salt value-a task that becomes infeasible when salts are large and unique per password. Salt does not enforce password complexity rules (that's a policy/validation function), does not guarantee users choose different passwords, and does not prevent password reuse across sites. The correct statement is that salt makes the resulting hash different even for the same password, improving resistance to offline cracking at scale and eliminating the "same hash = same password" shortcut attackers rely on.
NEW QUESTION # 79
(A security analyst is using 3DES for data encryption. Which 3DES key size is valid?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
3DES (Triple DES) applies the DES block cipher three times to increase effective security, and its commonly cited valid key sizes correspond to how many independent DES keys are used. Two-key
3DES uses two 56-bit DES keys (K1 and K2) in an EDE sequence (Encrypt with K1, Decrypt with K2, Encrypt with K1), yielding 112 bits of keying material (ignoring parity bits). Three-key 3DES uses three independent 56-bit keys for a total of 168 bits of keying material, but that option is not listed here.
A 56-bit key corresponds to single DES, not 3DES. 128-bit is associated with AES, not 3DES. 2,048-bit is typical for RSA keys, not symmetric ciphers. Therefore, among the choices provided, 112-bit is a valid 3DES key size. While 3DES is now deprecated for many uses due to its 64-bit block size and performance limitations, understanding its keying options remains important for legacy system assessment.
NEW QUESTION # 80
(Which mode of encryption uses an Initialization Vector (IV) to encrypt the first block and then uses the result to encrypt the next block?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
CBC mode introduces dependency between blocks to prevent the pattern leakage seen in ECB. It starts with a random (or unpredictable) IV for the first block. Before encrypting block 1, CBC XORs plaintext block 1 with the IV, then encrypts the result. For block 2 and onward, CBC XORs each plaintext block with the previous ciphertext block before encryption. This chaining means that changing one plaintext block affects that block's ciphertext and also influences the next block's computation. The IV ensures that encrypting the same message twice under the same key produces different ciphertexts (assuming a fresh IV). Option A (ECB) has no IV or chaining. OFB and CFB are feedback modes that effectively generate a keystream; they do use an IV, but the "uses the result to encrypt the next block" wording most directly matches CBC's ciphertext-chaining description in standard teaching. CBC still requires integrity protection (e.g., HMAC or an AEAD mode) because it can be malleable without authentication. Therefore, the correct mode is Cipher Block Chaining (CBC).
NEW QUESTION # 81
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