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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Topic 1: Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - HMAC construction and application - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication |
| Topic 2: Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation - Principles: public/private key pairs - Digital signatures: purpose and process - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman |
| Topic 3: Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Principles and operation - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish |
| Topic 4: Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Historical evolution and modern applications - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key |
| Topic 5: Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Standards and compliance - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes |
| Topic 6: Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction |
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NEW QUESTION # 53
(Which attack maps hashed values to their original input data?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
A rainbow table attack uses large, precomputed tables that link hash outputs back to likely original inputs (typically passwords). Instead of storing every password#hash pair directly (which would be huge), rainbow tables store chains created by alternating hash operations with reduction functions, allowing attackers to reconstruct candidate plaintexts that produce a given hash. This makes cracking fast , if the target hashes are unsalted and use a known, fast hash function. Salt defeats rainbow tables because the attacker would need separate tables for each salt value, which becomes infeasible when salts are unique and sufficiently large. A dictionary at tack is related but typically computes hashes on the fly from a wordlist rather than using precomputed chain structures. A birthday attack targets collisions, not mapping to original data. Brute-force tries all candidates without precomputation. Because th e question explicitly describes mapping hashed values back to original data via a precomputed approach, the correct choice is Rainbow table.
NEW QUESTION # 54
(Why is it important for cryptography frameworks to adapt over time?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Cryptography must evolve because threats, computing capabilities, and attack techniques continuously change. Algorithms once considered safe can become vulnerable due to cryptanalysis, implementation attacks, protocol flaws, or sheer increases in available compute power. Examples include the deprecation of SHA-1 for signatures, weakening of RC4, and migration away from older TLS versions and weak cipher suites. Frameworks also need to adapt to new environments-cloud architectures, IoT deployments, mobile devices-and new adversary models, including the long-term risk posed by quantum computing to current public-key systems. Adaptation includes updating standards, increasing key sizes where needed, adopting modern primitives (AEAD modes, stronger KDFs), improving key management practices (rotation, hardware- backed storage), and refining operational guidance (certificate lifetimes, revocation strategies). A rigid structure that never changes would lock organizations into obsolete protections and accumulate risk.
Standardizing obsolete techniques or complying with outdated standards is the opposite of sound security engineering. Therefore, cryptography frameworks must adapt over time to respond to emerging threats and vulnerabilities and to maintain effective protection as the landscape evolves.
NEW QUESTION # 55
(What is an attribute of RC4 when used with WEP?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
In classic WEP deployments, RC4 was used with what is commonly called "40-bit WEP" (also labeled
"64-bit WEP" because it combines a 40-bit secret key with a 24-bit IV to form a 64-bit RC4 seed). The key attribute emphasized in many foundational descriptions of WEP is this 40-bit shared secret length, which was originally chosen due to export restrictions and legacy constraints. Although "104-bit WEP" (sometimes called "128-bit WEP," again counting the 24-bit IV) also existed, the option set here points to the historically standard and widely referenced attribute: a 40-bit key when RC4 is used in WEP.
Importantly, WEP's security failure is not only about key size; the 24-bit IV is too small and repeats frequently, and WEP's key scheduling vulnerabilities combined with IV reuse allow attackers to recover the secret key with enough captured frames. Still, among the given options, the correct attribute is the 40-bit key.
NEW QUESTION # 56
(A security engineer is implementing device authentication as a form of two-factor authentication in a Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) environment. What should be used as a second form of authentication?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
In a PKI environment, a digital certificate is the standard credential used to bind an identity (user, device, service) to a public key, with that binding vouched for by a Certificate Authority. For device authentication, the device typically proves possession of the private key corresponding to the certificate' s public key (for example, during a TLS handshake). As a second factor in a two-factor model, a certificate (often stored in a TPM, smart card, or secure enclave) represents "something you have"-a cryptographic credential anchored to hardware or a managed endpoint. The other listed options (symmetric encryption, asymmetric encryption, digital signature) are cryptographic operations or algorithm classes, not stand-alone authentication factors. A digital signature is a mechanism used within authentication flows, but it is not itself the credential that establishes an enrolled device identity within PKI. In practice, a certificate-based device factor is commonly paired with a knowledge factor (password/PIN) or a biometric factor to achieve true 2FA, but among these choices, the appropriate second form of authentication in PKI terms is the digital certificate.
NEW QUESTION # 57
(Two people want to communicate through secure email. The person creating the email wants to ensure only their friend can decrypt the email. Which key should the person creating the email use to encrypt the message?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
To ensure confidentiality so that only the intended recipient can decrypt an email, the sender must encrypt in a way that only the recipient can reverse. In public key cryptography, that means encrypting with the recipient's public key. The recipient is the only party who should possess the matching private key, so only they can decrypt the ciphertext. This pattern is fundamental to PKI-based secure email systems such as S/MIME and OpenPGP: the sender looks up or is provided the recipient's certificate
/public key, encrypts the message (often by encrypting a randomly generated symmetric session key with the recipient's public key), and the recipient uses their private key to recover the session key and decrypt the content. Encrypting with the sender's private key would not provide confidentiality; it resembles signing because anyone with the sender's public key could "decrypt" it. Encrypting with a private key of the recipient is also incorrect because private keys are not shared and should never leave the recipient's control. Therefore, the correct key to encrypt the message so only the friend can decrypt it is the recipient's public key.
NEW QUESTION # 58
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