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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Cryptography Fundamentals | - Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption - Cryptographic Terminology - History and Evolution of Cryptography |
| Asymmetric Cryptography | - RSA Algorithm - Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) - Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) - Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange |
| Symmetric Cryptography | - Initialization Vectors (IV) - Key Management - Block Ciphers (AES, DES, 3DES) - Stream Ciphers |
| Cryptanalysis and Attacks | - Social Engineering Prevention - Brute Force and Dictionary Attacks - Common Attack Vectors |
| Applied Cryptography | - VPN Security - Cryptographic Best Practices - SSL/TLS Protocols - PGP and Email Encryption |
| Hashing and Digital Signatures | - Hash Functions (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256) - Digital Signature Standards - Message Authentication Codes (MAC) |
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NEW QUESTION # 63
(Which default port must be allowed by firewalls for the key exchange of the IPsec handshaking process to be successful?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
IPsec's initial key exchange is commonly performed using IKE (Internet Key Exchange), which negotiates Security Associations (SAs), authenticates peers, and establishes shared keys for ESP/AH protection. The traditional and default transport for IKEv1 and IKEv2 is UDP port 500. During negotiation, peers exchange proposals (crypto suites), perform Diffie-Hellman to derive key material, and authenticate using pre-shared keys, certificates, or EAP methods. If a firewall blocks UDP 500, the IKE negotiation cannot begin, preventing IPsec tunnels from forming. In many real deployments, NAT traversal is also used; in that case, traffic typically shifts to UDP 4500 (NAT-T) after detection of NAT, but UDP 500 is still required for the initial exchange and NAT detection in many configurations. TCP
500 is not standard for IKE. Port 443 is associated with HTTPS/TLS and some SSL VPNs, not IPsec IKE. Therefore, among the options provided, the firewall must allow UDP 500 for IPsec key exchange to succeed.
NEW QUESTION # 64
(What are the primary characteristics of Bitcoin proof of work?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Bitcoin's proof of work (PoW) is designed so that finding a valid block is computationally difficult, but checking validity is computationally easy. Miners must repeatedly hash candidate block headers (double SHA-
256) with different nonces until they find a hash value below a network-defined target. This trial-and-error search requires significant work and energy because the probability of success per attempt is extremely low at current difficulty levels. However, verification is straightforward: any node can hash the block header once (or a small number of times) and confirm the resulting hash meets the target threshold and that the block contents follow protocol rules. This "hard to produce, easy to verify" property is essential: it makes it expensive for attackers to rewrite history or outpace honest miners, while allowing all participants-even low- power devices-to validate blocks efficiently. Therefore, the primary characteristic of Bitcoin proof of work is that it is difficult to produce and easy to verify.
NEW QUESTION # 65
(Which of the following is an example of a software encryption solution for disk storage?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
Disk/storage encryption protects data at rest by encrypting the contents of a drive so it remains unreadable without the correct authentication and keys. BitLocker (commonly on Windows) and FileVault (commonly on macOS) are well-known software-based full-disk encryption solutions integrated into their operating systems.
They encrypt sectors on disk and typically tie key protection to user credentials and, where available, hardware features such as a TPM or secure enclave to reduce key extraction risk. A VPN encrypts network traffic in transit, not disk storage. An HSM is specialized hardware used to generate, store, and protect cryptographic keys and perform crypto operations; it is not a disk encryption product itself. USB encryption hardware refers to hardware-encrypted removable media, not a software solution for a system disk. Therefore, the correct example of a software encryption solution for disk storage is BitLocker and FileVault.
NEW QUESTION # 66
(Which cryptographic operation uses a single key?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Symmetric cryptography uses a single shared secret key for both encryption and decryption. This contrasts with asymmetric cryptography, which uses a key pair (public/private). Symmetric algorithms (like AES, ChaCha20) are efficient and well-suited for bulk data encryption, but they require a secure method for key distribution because both parties must possess the same secret. Hashing is not a keyed operation by default (though HMAC is keyed); it maps arbitrary data to a fixed-size digest and is primarily used for integrity checking, fingerprints, and password hashing constructions. Padding is a data formatting technique (e.g., PKCS#7) used to align plaintext to a block size; it is not a cryptographic "operation" that uses a key.
Therefore, the cryptographic operation characterized by using one key shared between parties is symmetric encryption. In real systems, symmetric encryption is frequently combined with asymmetric methods for key exchange and with MACs/AEAD for integrity, producing the standard hybrid approach used in protocols like TLS and IPsec.
NEW QUESTION # 67
(What is the length of the Initialization Vector (IV) in WEP?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) uses the RC4 stream cipher and combines a per-packet Initialization Vector (IV) with a shared secret key to form the RC4 seed for that packet's keystream. The IV in WEP is 24 bits long and is transmitted in the clear as part of the 802.11 frame so the receiver can reconstruct the same per-packet RC4 key stream. The short IV space (2²# possible values) is a major design weakness: on a busy network, IVs repeat frequently, causing keystream reuse. Because RC4 is a stream cipher, keystream reuse enables attackers to derive relationships between plaintexts and recover keys with statistical attacks (notably the Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir (FMS) family of attacks and related improvements). WEP also uses a CRC-32 integrity check (ICV) that is not cryptographically strong and is vulnerable to modification attacks. The 24-bit IV length is therefore a key reason WEP is considered insecure and has been replaced by WPA/WPA2 mechanisms that use stronger key mixing, larger nonces/IVs, and robust integrity protection.
NEW QUESTION # 68
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