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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Topic 1: Cryptography Fundamentals | - Cryptographic Terminology - Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption - History and Evolution of Cryptography |
| Topic 2: Hashing and Digital Signatures | - Hash Functions (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256) - Message Authentication Codes (MAC) - Digital Signature Standards |
| Topic 3: Cryptanalysis and Attacks | - Social Engineering Prevention - Common Attack Vectors - Brute Force and Dictionary Attacks |
| Topic 4: Asymmetric Cryptography | - RSA Algorithm - Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange - Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) - Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) |
| Topic 5: Symmetric Cryptography | - Stream Ciphers - Key Management - Block Ciphers (AES, DES, 3DES) - Initialization Vectors (IV) |
| Topic 6: Applied Cryptography | - PGP and Email Encryption - VPN Security - Cryptographic Best Practices - SSL/TLS Protocols |
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NEW QUESTION # 22
(Which number generator has different results given the same input data?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
A true random number generator (TRNG) produces outputs derived from nondeterministic physical processes (e.g., thermal noise, oscillator jitter, radioactive decay, or other hardware entropy sources).
Because the underlying phenomenon is not algorithmically determined by an input seed in the same way as a PRNG, repeated "inputs" (or identical conditions from a software perspective) do not yield the same sequence; the outputs vary unpredictably. By contrast, a pseudorandom number generator (PRNG) is deterministic: given the same seed and internal state, it produces the same output sequence, which is useful for repeatability but means security depends on seed secrecy and proper seeding.
"Prime" is not a generator type, and "sequence" is too generic and does not imply nondeterminism. In cryptographic systems, TRNGs (or hardware entropy sources) are often used to seed cryptographically secure PRNGs (CSPRNGs), combining high-quality entropy with efficient generation. Therefore, the generator that can produce different results for the "same input data" is a true random number generator.
NEW QUESTION # 23
(What is a component of a one-time password (OTP) that is needed to guess future iterations of passwords?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
OTP systems (such as HOTP and TOTP) generate a sequence of passwords using a shared secret and a moving factor (counter or time). The critical secret that underpins the ability to compute past or future OTP values is the seed (also called the shared secret key). In HOTP, the seed is used with an HMAC function and an incrementing counter; in TOTP, the seed is used with HMAC and a time-step value. If an attacker obtains the seed and knows the algorithm and moving factor, they can compute future OTPs. The "function" and "encryption algorithm" are typically standardized and public; security relies on keeping the seed secret. An initialization vector is not a standard OTP component in HOTP
/TOTP generation. Therefore, the component needed to predict future OTP values is the seed.
Protecting the seed is essential: it should be stored securely (e.g., hardware token secure storage) and transmitted only through controlled provisioning processes. If compromised, OTP becomes predictable and no longer serves as a strong second factor.
NEW QUESTION # 24
(What is the length of the Initialization Vector (IV) in WEP?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) uses the RC4 stream cipher and combines a per-packet Initialization Vector (IV) with a shared secret key to form the RC4 seed for that packet's keystream. The IV in WEP is 24 bits long and is transmitted in the clear as part of the 802.11 frame so the receiver can reconstruct the same per-packet RC4 key stream. The short IV space (2²# possible values) is a major design weakness: on a busy network, IVs repeat frequently, causing keystream reuse. Because RC4 is a stream cipher, keystream reuse enables attackers to derive relationships between plaintexts and recover keys with statistical attacks (notably the Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir (FMS) family of attacks and related improvements). WEP also uses a CRC-32 integrity check (ICV) that is not cryptographically strong and is vulnerable to modification attacks. The 24-bit IV length is therefore a key reason WEP is considered insecure and has been replaced by WPA/WPA2 mechanisms that use stronger key mixing, larger nonces/IVs, and robust integrity protection.
NEW QUESTION # 25
(Which type of encryption is Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) considered to be?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
AES is a symmetric-key block cipher, meaning the same shared secret key is used for both encryption and decryption. It operates on fixed-size 128-bit blocks and supports key sizes of 128, 192, and 256 bits. Being symmetric, AES is efficient and well-suited for encrypting large volumes of data-files, disk encryption, VPN payloads, and bulk traffic in protocols like TLS once a session key is established. AES is not "hybrid" by itself; hybrid encryption refers to combining asymmetric cryptography (for key exchange or key wrapping) with symmetric cryptography (for bulk data encryption), and AES often plays the symmetric part of that hybrid design. It is not "quantum encryption," which is a separate, loosely used term sometimes referring to quantum key distribution or quantum-resistant algorithms. AES is also not asymmetric; it does not use public
/private key pairs. Therefore, AES is correctly classified as symmetric encryption, matching option D.
NEW QUESTION # 26
(Which is a primary reason for ethical concerns about encryption?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Ethical concerns about encryption commonly arise from the tension between individual privacy/security and societal needs such as law enforcement, national security, and public safety. Strong end-to-end encryption can prevent unauthorized parties from accessing data, including criminals and foreign adversaries, but it can also limit legitimate government access to communications and evidence-even with warrants-because providers may not possess the keys needed to decrypt. This has fueled debates around "going dark," lawful access, and proposals for exceptional access mechanisms or backdoors. Critics argue that weakening encryption for access would create systemic risk, since any intentional vulnerability can be exploited by malicious actors, while proponents emphasize investigative needs in serious cases. Regardless of the stance, the primary ethical concern reflected in policy debates is that encryption complicates government access to information that may be crucial for preventing or investigating crime. The other options do not capture the main ethical controversy: encryption is widely beneficial beyond corporations, and it is not primarily about speed or storage reduction. Therefore, the correct answer is B.
NEW QUESTION # 27
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