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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models - Digital signatures: purpose and process - Principles: public/private key pairs |
| Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP |
| Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities - Standards and compliance - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes |
| Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - HMAC construction and application - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function |
| Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges - Principles and operation - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish |
| Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Historical evolution and modern applications |
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NEW QUESTION # 19
(Which operation can be performed on a certificate during the "Issued" stage?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
The "Issued" stage in a certificate lifecycle indicates that the certificate has been generated and signed by the issuing CA and is now valid for use (subject to validity dates, policy constraints, and revocation status). At this point, the operational focus shifts from creating the certificate to making it available to the subject and relying parties. "Distribution" is the lifecycle activity most directly associated with an issued certificate: installing it on servers or endpoints, provisioning it into keystores, publishing it to directories if required, and ensuring the chain (intermediates) is accessible for validation. By contrast,
"Creation" is earlier in the process (key generation, CSR creation, identity validation, issuance
/signing). "Key recovery" and "key archiving" relate to private key management and escrow policies (often for encryption keys, not signing keys), and are governed by organizational policy and key management systems rather than the certificate's issued state itself. A certificate can be distributed after issuance regardless of whether any key escrow features exist. Therefore, the operation that fits the certificate's "Issued" stage best is distribution of the issued credential for operational use.
NEW QUESTION # 20
(Which cryptographic operation has the fastest decryption process?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Symmetric cryptography generally provides the fastest encryption and decryption performance among common cryptographic operations. Algorithms like AES and ChaCha20 are designed for high throughput and efficient implementation in software and hardware (e.g., AES-NI acceleration).
Symmetric decryption is computationally similar in cost to symmetric encryption, and both are far faster than asymmetric operations for equivalent security levels. Asymmetric cryptography (RSA, ECC) involves expensive mathematical operations (modular exponentiation or elliptic-curve scalar multiplication), making it much slower and unsuitable for bulk data decryption. That is why real-world secure protocols use asymmetric cryptography primarily to authenticate peers and establish keys, then switch to symmetric encryption for the actual data stream. Hashing is not decryption at all; it is one- way, and there is no "decrypt" operation for a hash. Padding is not a decryption mechanism; it is a formatting step used with block ciphers to align plaintext length. Therefore, the correct choice for the operation with the fastest decryption process is symmetric cryptography.
NEW QUESTION # 21
(Which cryptographic operation uses a single key?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Symmetric cryptography uses a single shared secret key for both encryption and decryption. This contrasts with asymmetric cryptography, which uses a key pair (public/private). Symmetric algorithms (like AES, ChaCha20) are efficient and well-suited for bulk data encryption, but they require a secure method for key distribution because both parties must possess the same secret. Hashing is not a keyed operation by default (though HMAC is keyed); it maps arbitrary data to a fixed-size digest and is primarily used for integrity checking, fingerprints, and password hashing constructions. Padding is a data formatting technique (e.g., PKCS#7) used to align plaintext to a block size; it is not a cryptographic "operation" that uses a key.
Therefore, the cryptographic operation characterized by using one key shared between parties is symmetric encryption. In real systems, symmetric encryption is frequently combined with asymmetric methods for key exchange and with MACs/AEAD for integrity, producing the standard hybrid approach used in protocols like TLS and IPsec.
NEW QUESTION # 22
(Why should a forensic investigator create a hash of a victim's hard drive and of the bitstream copy of the hard drive?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
In digital forensics, investigators must preserve evidence integrity and demonstrate an unbroken chain of custody. Creating a cryptographic hash (such as SHA-256) of the original drive and then hashing the forensic bitstream image provides a strong mathematical assurance that the copy is an exact, bit-for-bit replica.
Because secure hash functions are designed so that any tiny change in data produces a dramatically different digest, matching hashes indicate the image contains identical data to the source at the time of acquisition. This is critical in legal and investigative contexts: analysis is performed on the copy, not the original, to avoid altering evidence. If the hashes match, the investigator can testify that the evidence examined is identical to what was collected, supporting admissibility and credibility. Hashing does not prove who created files, nor does it directly show whether someone "opened the drive"; it specifically validates the integrity and equivalence of the captured image. Therefore, hashing both artifacts is done to verify that the original and the bitstream copy are identical.
NEW QUESTION # 23
(How is Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) commonly utilized in web browsers?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Web browsers rely on PKI to establish trust in secure connections, primarily through X.509 certificates and a built-in set of trusted root Certificate Authorities (CAs). When a browser connects to an HTTPS site, the server presents a certificate chain. The browser validates that chain up to a trusted root, checks that the certificate is valid for the domain (SAN/CN matching), confirms validity dates, and may check revocation status. This PKI process allows browsers to authenticate the website's identity and negotiate encrypted session keys for TLS, enabling confidentiality and integrity for the connection. In practical terms, the browser' s PKI components include certificate stores, validation logic, and mechanisms for handling intermediates, trust policies, and revocation. While PKI supports authentication as an outcome, the best description of how browsers utilize PKI is that they manage and validate digital certificates and associated keys to establish trust.
PKI is not about compressing messages or encrypting data at rest; it is about identity binding and trust chains that make secure web communication possible.
NEW QUESTION # 24
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