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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Topic 1: Asymmetric Cryptography | - Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange - Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) - Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) - RSA Algorithm |
| Topic 2: Symmetric Cryptography | - Initialization Vectors (IV) - Key Management - Block Ciphers (AES, DES, 3DES) - Stream Ciphers |
| Topic 3: Hashing and Digital Signatures | - Message Authentication Codes (MAC) - Hash Functions (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256) - Digital Signature Standards |
| Topic 4: Applied Cryptography | - Cryptographic Best Practices - SSL/TLS Protocols - PGP and Email Encryption - VPN Security |
| Topic 5: Cryptanalysis and Attacks | - Brute Force and Dictionary Attacks - Common Attack Vectors - Social Engineering Prevention |
| Topic 6: Cryptography Fundamentals | - History and Evolution of Cryptography - Cryptographic Terminology - Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption |
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NEW QUESTION # 37
(Which number of bits gets encrypted each time encryption is applied during stream encryption?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
In the classical definition, a stream cipher encrypts data in very small units-often described as one bit at a time-by combining plaintext with a keystream (commonly via XOR). While many practical stream ciphers operate on bytes or words for efficiency, the conceptual distinction compared to block ciphers is that stream encryption processes data as a continuous stream rather than fixed-size blocks. This is why the standard teaching answer is "1 bit" per application of the keystream. Block ciphers, by contrast, encrypt blocks like 64 bits (DES/3DES) or 128 bits (AES) in each invocation of the block primitive. Options like 40, 192, and 256 are not typical stream cipher "per-step" processing sizes; 40 and 256 are often associated with key sizes, and
192 could be a key size for AES, not an encryption granularity. The essential security requirement for stream ciphers is that the keystream must be unpredictable and never reused with the same key/nonce combination; otherwise XOR properties allow attackers to recover relationships between plaintexts. Thus, the best answer is
1.
NEW QUESTION # 38
(What is a component of a one-time password (OTP) that is needed to guess future iterations of passwords?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
OTP systems (such as HOTP and TOTP) generate a sequence of passwords using a shared secret and a moving factor (counter or time). The critical secret that underpins the ability to compute past or future OTP values is the seed (also called the shared secret key). In HOTP, the seed is used with an HMAC function and an incrementing counter; in TOTP, the seed is used with HMAC and a time-step value. If an attacker obtains the seed and knows the algorithm and moving factor, they can compute future OTPs. The "function" and
"encryption algorithm" are typically standardized and public; security relies on keeping the seed secret. An initialization vector is not a standard OTP component in HOTP/TOTP generation. Therefore, the component needed to predict future OTP values is the seed. Protecting the seed is essential: it should be stored securely (e.
g., hardware token secure storage) and transmitted only through controlled provisioning processes. If compromised, OTP becomes predictable and no longer serves as a strong second factor.
NEW QUESTION # 39
(What is the purpose of code-signing in current systems?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Code-signing is used to provide verifiable assurance that software comes from a known publisher and has not been modified since it was signed. In a typical code-signing workflow, the publisher computes a cryptographic hash (digest) of the executable or package and then creates a digital signature over that digest using the publisher's private key. Operating systems, browsers, and application platforms verify the signature using the corresponding public key (usually delivered via a code-signing certificate chained to a trusted root).
If verification succeeds, the system can trust that the code's contents match what the publisher signed (integrity) and that the signer identity is authenticated by the certificate chain (authenticity). This helps defend against tampering, malware injection, and supply-chain attacks where attackers alter binaries or updates in transit or at rest. Code-signing does not primarily generate randomness, compress data, or authenticate users; it authenticates the software publisher and validates the software artifact. Modern ecosystems also use timestamping and revocation checking to handle certificate expiration and compromised signing keys, reinforcing trust over time.
NEW QUESTION # 40
(What is the length of the Initialization Vector (IV) in WEP?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) uses the RC4 stream cipher and combines a per-packet Initialization Vector (IV) with a shared secret key to form the RC4 seed for that packet's keystream. The IV in WEP is 24 bits long and is transmitted in the clear as part of the 802.11 frame so the receiver can reconstruct the same per-packet RC4 key stream. The short IV space (2²# possible values) is a major design weakness: on a busy network, IVs repeat frequently, causing keystream reuse. Because RC4 is a stream cipher, keystream reuse enables attackers to derive relationships between plaintexts and recover keys with statistical attacks (notably the Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir (FMS) family of attacks and related improvements). WEP also uses a CRC-32 integrity check (ICV) that is not cryptographically strong and is vulnerable to modification attacks. The 24-bit IV length is therefore a key reason WEP is considered insecure and has been replaced by WPA/WPA2 mechanisms that use stronger key mixing, larger nonces/IVs, and robust integrity protection.
NEW QUESTION # 41
(What are the roles of keys when using digital signatures?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Digital signatures provide integrity, authenticity, and typically non-repudiation by using an asymmetric key pair. The signer uses the private key to create a signature over a message (usually over a hash/digest of the message). Because the private key is kept secret, only the legitimate signer should be able to produce a valid signature. Anyone who has the corresponding public key can then validate the signature: they verify that the signature matches the message digest under the public key and that the signed data has not been altered. This is why the public key can be widely distributed (often inside an X.509 certificate) while the private key must be protected by the signer. If a public key were used to sign, anyone could forge signatures; if a private key were required for validation, only the signer could validate, defeating the purpose of public verifiability.
Therefore, the correct key roles are private key for signing and public key for signature validation.
NEW QUESTION # 42
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