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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Topic 1: Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication - HMAC construction and application |
| Topic 2: Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges - Principles and operation |
| Topic 3: Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Standards and compliance - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes |
| Topic 4: Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction |
| Topic 5: Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models - Principles: public/private key pairs - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation - Digital signatures: purpose and process |
| Topic 6: Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Historical evolution and modern applications - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key |
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NEW QUESTION # 18
(What are the roles of keys when using digital signatures?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
Digital signatures provide integrity, authenticity, and typically non-repudiation by using an asymmetric key pair. The signer uses the private key to create a signature over a message (usually over a hash
/digest of the message). Because the private key is kept secret, only the legitimate signer should be able to produce a valid signature. Anyone who has the corresponding public key can then validate the signature: they verify that the signature matches the message digest under the public key and that the signed data has not been altered. This is why the public key can be widely distributed (often inside an X.
509 certificate) while the private key must be protected by the signer. If a public key were used to sign, anyone could forge signatures; if a private key were required for validation, only the signer could validate, defeating the purpose of public verifiability. Therefore, the correct key roles are private key for signing and public key for signature validation.
NEW QUESTION # 19
(What are the primary characteristics of Bitcoin proof of work?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Bitcoin's proof of work (PoW) is designed so that finding a valid block is computationally difficult, but checking validity is computationally easy. Miners must repeatedly hash candidate block headers (double SHA-
256) with different nonces until they find a hash value below a network-defined target. This trial-and-error search requires significant work and energy because the probability of success per attempt is extremely low at current difficulty levels. However, verification is straightforward: any node can hash the block header once (or a small number of times) and confirm the resulting hash meets the target threshold and that the block contents follow protocol rules. This "hard to produce, easy to verify" property is essential: it makes it expensive for attackers to rewrite history or outpace honest miners, while allowing all participants-even low- power devices-to validate blocks efficiently. Therefore, the primary characteristic of Bitcoin proof of work is that it is difficult to produce and easy to verify.
NEW QUESTION # 20
(A security analyst is using 3DES for data encryption. Which 3DES key size is valid?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
3DES (Triple DES) applies the DES block cipher three times to increase effective security, and its commonly cited valid key sizes correspond to how many independent DES keys are used. Two-key 3DES uses two 56- bit DES keys (K1 and K2) in an EDE sequence (Encrypt with K1, Decrypt with K2, Encrypt with K1), yielding 112 bits of keying material (ignoring parity bits). Three-key 3DES uses three independent 56-bit keys for a total of 168 bits of keying material, but that option is not listed here. A 56-bit key corresponds to single DES, not 3DES. 128-bit is associated with AES, not 3DES. 2,048-bit is typical for RSA keys, not symmetric ciphers. Therefore, among the choices provided, 112-bit is a valid 3DES key size. While 3DES is now deprecated for many uses due to its 64-bit block size and performance limitations, understanding its keying options remains important for legacy system assessment.
NEW QUESTION # 21
(What is the significance of the Nobody But Us (NOBUS) principle in cryptography?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
The NOBUS (Nobody But Us) principle is a controversial security notion suggesting that it is possible to introduce or maintain an access capability (often framed as a "backdoor" or exploitable weakness) that is effectively usable only by the party that designed it-typically a government or specific organization-while remaining infeasible for everyone else to exploit. In practice, NOBUS is invoked in debates about lawful access, surveillance, and exceptional access mechanisms: proponents claim that sophisticated entities can keep exploitation techniques secret and complex enough that adversaries cannot replicate them. Critics argue that this assumption is fragile because vulnerabilities can be independently discovered, reverse engineered, leaked, or eventually exploited as tools and knowledge spread. Moreover, once a weakness exists, it becomes a systemic risk: software and cryptographic systems are widely deployed and adversaries can invest heavily in finding and weaponizing the same flaw. Modern security engineering generally favors eliminating known weaknesses rather than relying on secrecy or assumed asymmetry of capability. Therefore, the best description of NOBUS is that a vulnerability is believed to be so difficult to exploit that only its creator can exploit it.
NEW QUESTION # 22
(Which type of network were VPN connections originally designed to tunnel through?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is designed to create a secure, private communication channel over an otherwise untrusted or shared infrastructure. Historically and conceptually, VPNs were built to allow organizations and users to transmit sensitive traffic across the public Internet while maintaining confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity. The "virtual" aspect means the network behaves like a private link, but the underlying transport is typically a public network where attackers could potentially observe or tamper with traffic. VPN technologies such as IPsec and SSL/TLS-based VPNs encapsulate packets and apply encryption and authentication so that the payload and session metadata are protected even when traversing public routing domains. Options like "encrypted" and "protected" describe properties of the VPN tunnel itself rather than the underlying network it traverses; the VPN provides encryption/protection precisely because the medium is not inherently secure. "Private" would describe a dedicated internal network, which generally does not require a VPN to achieve basic confidentiality. Therefore, VPNs were originally designed to tunnel through public networks.
NEW QUESTION # 23
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