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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Topic 1: Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key - Historical evolution and modern applications |
| Topic 2: Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 - HMAC construction and application |
| Topic 3: Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation - Digital signatures: purpose and process - Principles: public/private key pairs - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman |
| Topic 4: Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes - Standards and compliance - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities |
| Topic 5: Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish - Principles and operation - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) |
| Topic 6: Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP |
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NEW QUESTION # 51
(What are the roles of keys when using digital signatures?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Digital signatures provide integrity, authenticity, and typically non-repudiation by using an asymmetric key pair. The signer uses the private key to create a signature over a message (usually over a hash
/digest of the message). Because the private key is kept secret, only the legitimate signer should be able to produce a valid signature. Anyone who has the corresponding public key can then validate the signature: they verify that the signature matches the message digest under the public key and that the signed data has not been altered. This is why the public key can be widely distributed (often inside an X.
509 certificate) while the private key must be protected by the signer. If a public key were used to sign, anyone could forge signatures; if a private key were required for validation, only the signer could validate, defeating the purpose of public verifiability. Therefore, the correct key roles are private key for signing and public key for signature validation.
NEW QUESTION # 52
(Which mechanism can be applied to protect the integrity of plaintext when using AES?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
AES by itself is a symmetric block cipher that provides confidentiality, but not guaranteed integrity unless used in an authenticated mode. To protect integrity of the plaintext (ensuring it has not been altered), a Message Authentication Code (MAC) can be applied. In the classic Encrypt-then-MAC pattern, the sender encrypts the plaintext with AES and then computes a MAC (often HMAC-SHA-256 or CMAC-AES) over the ciphertext (and relevant headers). The receiver verifies the MAC before attempting decryption, preventing tampering and many padding-oracle style vulnerabilities. Alternatively, AES can be used in an AEAD mode like AES-GCM, which produces an authentication tag serving a similar purpose, but among the listed options the general integrity mechanism is "MAC." RC4 is an unrelated stream cipher and does not provide integrity.
RSA is asymmetric and not the standard integrity add-on for AES-encrypted bulk data. Kerberos is an authentication protocol and key distribution system, not a message integrity primitive. Therefore, to protect plaintext integrity when using AES, the correct mechanism is a Message Authentication Code.
NEW QUESTION # 53
(Which symmetric encryption technique uses a 256-bit key size and a 128-bit block size?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) is a symmetric block cipher standardized to operate on a fixed 128-bit block size and supports key sizes of 128, 192, and 256 bits. When the key size is 256 bits, the cipher is commonly referred to as AES-256, but the block size remains 128 bits regardless of key length. This combination (256-bit key, 128-bit block) matches the question precisely. By comparison, DES uses a 64-bit block size with a 56-bit effective key. 3DES also uses a 64-bit block size and effectively applies DES three times, yielding an effective key length typically cited as 112 bits (two-key 3DES) or 168 bits (three-key
3DES), depending on how keys are configured. IDEA uses a 64-bit block size with a 128-bit key. Therefore, the only listed algorithm that supports a 256-bit key while maintaining a 128-bit block size is AES. This is one reason AES is widely adopted for modern symmetric encryption: strong key sizes with efficient implementation and broad standardization.
NEW QUESTION # 54
(What is used to randomize the initial value when generating Initialization Vectors (IVs)?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
An IV (Initialization Vector) is a value used to ensure that encrypting identical plaintext under the same key produces different ciphertexts, preventing pattern leakage. In many secure designs, the IV must be unique (and often unpredictable) per encryption operation. A common way to ensure uniqueness is to incorporate a nonce-a "number used once." A nonce can be random, pseudo-random, or a counter-based value depending on the mode and security requirements. For example, CTR mode uses a nonce combined with a counter to produce unique input blocks; GCM uses a nonce/IV to ensure unique authentication and encryption behavior.
The encryption key should remain stable across many operations and should not be used as the "randomizer" for IV generation; mixing key material into IV creation in an ad hoc way can create reuse or correlation issues. Plaintext and algorithm do not provide the needed uniqueness property. The nonce concept is specifically about ensuring one-time uniqueness of the starting value so that IV reuse does not repeat keystream blocks (stream modes) or reveal plaintext equality (CBC/CTR). Therefore, the correct choice is Nonce.
NEW QUESTION # 55
(What is modular arithmetic in cryptography?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Modular arithmetic is the mathematics of working with remainders after division by a fixed number called the modulus. In cryptography, it underpins many core constructions because it defines arithmetic in finite sets (rings and fields) where values "wrap around," enabling stable, repeatable operations with bounded results.
Public-key systems like RSA rely on modular exponentiation (raising integers to powers modulo a composite number), while Diffie-Hellman and many elliptic-curve schemes operate in groups defined by modular arithmetic properties. Encryption and key exchange use modular operations because they allow efficient computation forward (e.g., exponentiation modulo a large number) while making certain inverse problems computationally hard without secret information (e.g., factoring or discrete logarithms). Modular reduction also helps keep intermediate values manageable and supports group properties needed for proofs of security.
Although modular arithmetic is not "encryption by itself," it is a foundational method used inside encryption algorithms and protocols. Therefore, among the options, describing it as a method used for encryption via modular operations best matches cryptographic usage.
NEW QUESTION # 56
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