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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Cryptography Fundamentals | - Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption - History and Evolution of Cryptography - Cryptographic Terminology |
| Applied Cryptography | - VPN Security - SSL/TLS Protocols - PGP and Email Encryption - Cryptographic Best Practices |
| Symmetric Cryptography | - Initialization Vectors (IV) - Key Management - Block Ciphers (AES, DES, 3DES) - Stream Ciphers |
| Cryptanalysis and Attacks | - Common Attack Vectors - Social Engineering Prevention - Brute Force and Dictionary Attacks |
| Asymmetric Cryptography | - Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange - Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) - RSA Algorithm - Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) |
| Hashing and Digital Signatures | - Digital Signature Standards - Hash Functions (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256) - Message Authentication Codes (MAC) |
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質問 # 67
(What is modular arithmetic in cryptography?)
正解：A
解説：
Modular arithmetic is the mathematics of working with remainders after division by a fixed number called the modulus. In cryptography, it underpins many core constructions because it defines arithmetic in finite sets (rings and fields) where values "wrap around," enabling stable, repeatable operations with bounded results.
Public-key systems like RSA rely on modular exponentiation (raising integers to powers modulo a composite number), while Diffie-Hellman and many elliptic-curve schemes operate in groups defined by modular arithmetic properties. Encryption and key exchange use modular operations because they allow efficient computation forward (e.g., exponentiation modulo a large number) while making certain inverse problems computationally hard without secret information (e.g., factoring or discrete logarithms). Modular reduction also helps keep intermediate values manageable and supports group properties needed for proofs of security.
Although modular arithmetic is not "encryption by itself," it is a foundational method used inside encryption algorithms and protocols. Therefore, among the options, describing it as a method used for encryption via modular operations best matches cryptographic usage.
質問 # 68
(How can auditing enhance an organization ' s cryptographic practices?)
正解：B
質問 # 69
(Which number generator has different results given the same input data?)
正解：C
解説：
A true random number generator (TRNG) produces outputs derived from nondeterministic physical processes (e.g., thermal noise, oscillator jitter, radioactive decay, or other hardware entropy sources).
Because the underlying phenomenon is not algorithmically determined by an input seed in the same way as a PRNG, repeated "inputs" (or identical conditions from a software perspective) do not yield the same sequence; the outputs vary unpredictably. By contrast, a pseudorandom number generator (PRNG) is deterministic: given the same seed and internal state, it produces the same output sequence, which is useful for repeatability but means security depends on seed secrecy and proper seeding.
"Prime" is not a generator type, and "sequence" is too generic and does not imply nondeterminism. In cryptographic systems, TRNGs (or hardware entropy sources) are often used to seed cryptographically secure PRNGs (CSPRNGs), combining high-quality entropy with efficient generation. Therefore, the generator that can produce different results for the "same input data" is a true random number generator.
質問 # 70
(Which is an example of asymmetric encryption?)
正解：C
解説：
Asymmetric cryptography uses a public/private key pair where different keys are used for related operations (encryption/decryption or signature/verification). Elliptic-Curve Cryptography (ECC) is a family of asymmetric algorithms built on the mathematics of elliptic curves over finite fields. ECC supports key exchange (ECDH), digital signatures (ECDSA/EdDSA), and other primitives with smaller key sizes for comparable security to traditional discrete-log or RSA systems (e.g., a 256-bit ECC key is often comparable in security to a 3072-bit RSA key, depending on scheme and parameters). By contrast, SHA-256 is a cryptographic hash function (one-way digest), and HMAC is a keyed integrity/authentication construction built from a hash function-neither is encryption. DES is a symmetric block cipher (same key for encryption and decryption). Therefore, the example of asymmetric encryption among the options is ECC.
質問 # 71
(Which attack maps hashed values to their original input data?)
正解：D
解説：
A rainbow table attack uses large, precomputed tables that link hash outputs back to likely original inputs (typically passwords). Instead of storing every password#hash pair directly (which would be huge), rainbow tables store chains created by alternating hash operations with reduction functions, allowing attackers to reconstruct candidate plaintexts that produce a given hash. This makes cracking fast,ifthe target hashes are unsalted and use a known, fast hash function. Salt defeats rainbow tables because the attacker would need separate tables for each salt value, which becomes infeasible when salts are unique and sufficiently large. A dictionary attack is related but typically computes hashes on the fly from a wordlist rather than using precomputed chain structures. A birthday attack targets collisions, not mapping to original data. Brute-force tries all candidates without precomputation.
Because the question explicitly describes mapping hashed values back to original data via a precomputed approach, the correct choice is Rainbow table.
質問 # 72
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