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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Hashing and Digital Signatures | - Message Authentication Codes (MAC) - Digital Signature Standards - Hash Functions (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256) |
| Cryptanalysis and Attacks | - Social Engineering Prevention - Brute Force and Dictionary Attacks - Common Attack Vectors |
| Cryptography Fundamentals | - Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption - History and Evolution of Cryptography - Cryptographic Terminology |
| Applied Cryptography | - SSL/TLS Protocols - Cryptographic Best Practices - VPN Security - PGP and Email Encryption |
| Symmetric Cryptography | - Stream Ciphers - Initialization Vectors (IV) - Block Ciphers (AES, DES, 3DES) - Key Management |
| Asymmetric Cryptography | - RSA Algorithm - Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) - Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange - Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) |
>> Introduction-to-Cryptography Questions Answers <<
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NEW QUESTION # 61
(What is an alternative to using a Certificate Revocation List (CRL) with certificates?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
OCSP is the primary online alternative to CRLs for checking whether a certificate has been revoked.
With a CRL, a relying party periodically downloads a list of revoked certificate serial numbers published by the issuing CA (or CRL distribution point). That approach can be bandwidth-heavy, introduces latency between revocation and client awareness, and can result in clients using stale revocation data if updates are infrequent. OCSP improves this by allowing a client (or a server on the client's behalf) to query an OCSP responder in near real time about the status of a specific certificate (good, revoked, or unknown). In practice, many TLS deployments use OCSP stapling, where the server periodically fetches a signed OCSP response from the CA's responder and "staples" it to the TLS handshake, reducing client-side network calls and improving privacy (the CA doesn't learn which site the client is visiting). Thus, OCSP provides a more timely, certificate-specific revocation status mechanism than CRLs while preserving the CA's signed assurance.
NEW QUESTION # 62
(What is a characteristic of Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) mode in cryptography?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
CBC mode introduces chaining between blocks to prevent the pattern leakage inherent in ECB. In CBC, each plaintext block is XORed with the previous ciphertext block before being encrypted with the block cipher. For the first block, CBC uses an Initialization Vector (IV) to serve as the "previous ciphertext" input. This makes encryption of each block dependent on the previous block's ciphertext, which is exactly the defining characteristic described in option A. CBC does not generate a continuous stream of key material-that describes stream ciphers or stream-like modes such as CTR/OFB. CBC also does not require a different key per operation; the same symmetric key is reused, while the IV must be fresh/unpredictable to ensure semantic security. The block size is determined by the underlying block cipher (e.g., AES is 128-bit blocks, DES/3DES are 64-bit blocks), not a fixed 32-bit size for CBC itself. Because CBC is not inherently authenticated, best practice is to pair it with a MAC (Encrypt-then-MAC) or use an AEAD mode instead.
NEW QUESTION # 63
(Why are large prime numbers important in cryptography?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
Large prime numbers are crucial because they enable cryptosystems where certain operations are easy to perform, but reversing them is computationally hard without secret information. In RSA, security is based on the difficulty of factoring a large composite number that is the product of two large primes; multiplying primes is easy, but factoring the product is believed to be hard at sufficient sizes. In Diffie-Hellman and related systems, primes define finite groups (often modulo a large prime) where exponentiation is efficient but the discrete logarithm problem is hard. Primes also help ensure desirable group properties-such as having a large cyclic subgroup-reducing vulnerabilities from small subgroups or weak structure. The value of "large" is that it makes brute-force and known algorithmic attacks infeasible with current computing resources. Large primes do not primarily make encryption faster, nor do they make decryption easier; they are chosen to maximize security margins. While primes can be involved in encoding steps, their importance is security: they form the mathematical foundation for hardness assumptions used by major public-key algorithms. Therefore, the best answer is that they provide security in encryption algorithms.
NEW QUESTION # 64
(Which mode of encryption converts data into a stream encryption and then uses a counter value and a nonce to encrypt the data?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
CTR (Counter) mode converts a block cipher into a stream-like encryption method by generating a keystream from encrypted counter blocks. The core idea is to construct a sequence of input blocks using a nonce (unique per message/session) plus an incrementing counter. Each nonce||counter block is encrypted with the block cipher under the shared key; the output is a pseudorandom block that is XORed with plaintext to produce ciphertext. Decryption repeats the same keystream generation and XORs with ciphertext to recover plaintext.
CTR offers practical benefits: it is highly parallelizable, supports precomputation of keystream blocks, and allows random access to any block without needing previous blocks (unlike CBC). ECB and CBC are block modes that do not use nonce+counter keystream generation. CFB is a feedback mode that can behave stream- like, but it does not use the explicit counter/nonce construction characteristic of CTR. CTR's security hinges on never reusing the same nonce/counter sequence with the same key, because that would reuse the keystream and enable XOR-based plaintext recovery. Therefore, the correct mode is Counter (CTR).
NEW QUESTION # 65
(A security analyst is using 3DES for data encryption. Which 3DES key size is valid?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
3DES (Triple DES) applies the DES block cipher three times to increase effective security, and its commonly cited valid key sizes correspond to how many independent DES keys are used. Two-key 3DES uses two 56- bit DES keys (K1 and K2) in an EDE sequence (Encrypt with K1, Decrypt with K2, Encrypt with K1), yielding 112 bits of keying material (ignoring parity bits). Three-key 3DES uses three independent 56-bit keys for a total of 168 bits of keying material, but that option is not listed here. A 56-bit key corresponds to single DES, not 3DES. 128-bit is associated with AES, not 3DES. 2,048-bit is typical for RSA keys, not symmetric ciphers. Therefore, among the choices provided, 112-bit is a valid 3DES key size. While 3DES is now deprecated for many uses due to its 64-bit block size and performance limitations, understanding its keying options remains important for legacy system assessment.
NEW QUESTION # 66
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