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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish - Principles and operation |
| Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function - HMAC construction and application - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 |
| Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Standards and compliance - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities |
| Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Historical evolution and modern applications - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key |
| Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - Principles: public/private key pairs - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models - Digital signatures: purpose and process - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation |
| Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction |
>> Introduction-to-Cryptography考試指南 <<
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問題 #17
(How does adding salt to a password improve security?)
答案：D
解題說明：
A salt is a unique, random value stored alongside a password hash and combined with the password during hashing. Its main security benefit is that it ensures identical passwords do not produce identical hashes across different accounts or systems. If two users choose the same password, their stored hashes will differ because their salts differ, which directly prevents attackers from spotting shared passwords by comparing hashes. Salts also defeat precomputation attacks such as rainbow tables, because an attacker would need to regenerate tables for each possible salt value-a task that becomes infeasible when salts are large and unique per password. Salt does not enforce password complexity rules (that's a policy/validation function), does not guarantee users choose different passwords, and does not prevent password reuse across sites. The correct statement is that salt makes the resulting hash different even for the same password, improving resistance to offline cracking at scale and eliminating the "same hash = same password" shortcut attackers rely on.
問題 #18
(What is a key benefit of using a cryptography framework?)
答案：D
解題說明：
A cryptography framework provides a consistent, repeatable way to select, deploy, and manage cryptographic controls across an organization. Its key benefit is structure: it defines approved algorithms and key sizes, acceptable modes of operation, key management rules (generation, storage, rotation, revocation, backup), certificate handling, and secure protocol configurations (e.g., TLS settings). This reduces ad hoc implementations that often lead to vulnerabilities such as weak ciphers, key reuse, improper randomness, or missing integrity protections. A framework also clarifies roles and processes-who can access keys, how secrets are audited, and how exceptions are handled-improving governance and operational reliability.
Importantly, it does not guarantee perfect security; no framework can eliminate all risk, and secure outcomes still depend on correct implementation, monitoring, and maintenance. It also does not eliminate the need for training; human error is a major source of crypto misconfiguration. While frameworks help with compliance, they are not solely about regulation; they are about sound security engineering and lifecycle management.
Therefore, the primary benefit is providing a structured approach to implementing encryption practices.
問題 #19
(What is modular arithmetic in cryptography?)
答案：C
解題說明：
Modular arithmetic is the mathematics of working with remainders after division by a fixed number called the modulus. In cryptography, it underpins many core constructions because it defines arithmetic in finite sets (rings and fields) where values "wrap around," enabling stable, repeatable operations with bounded results.
Public-key systems like RSA rely on modular exponentiation (raising integers to powers modulo a composite number), while Diffie-Hellman and many elliptic-curve schemes operate in groups defined by modular arithmetic properties. Encryption and key exchange use modular operations because they allow efficient computation forward (e.g., exponentiation modulo a large number) while making certain inverse problems computationally hard without secret information (e.g., factoring or discrete logarithms). Modular reduction also helps keep intermediate values manageable and supports group properties needed for proofs of security.
Although modular arithmetic is not "encryption by itself," it is a foundational method used inside encryption algorithms and protocols. Therefore, among the options, describing it as a method used for encryption via modular operations best matches cryptographic usage.
問題 #20
(What is the Enigma machine known for in the history of cryptography?)
答案：A
解題說明：
The Enigma machine is historically known as an electro-mechanical cipher device used primarily by Nazi Germany to secure military and diplomatic communications during World War II. It implemented a polyalphabetic substitution through a system of rotors, a reflector, and a plugboard, producing a large number of possible daily key settings. Operators would configure rotor order, ring settings, initial positions, and plugboard swaps, then type messages to generate ciphertext. Enigma's operational security depended heavily on correct procedures and secrecy of keys; weaknesses in procedures and design properties, combined with brilliant cryptanalysis and engineering efforts by Allied codebreakers (notably at Bletchley Park), enabled large-scale decryption of Enigma-encrypted traffic. In cryptography history, Enigma represents the transition from manual ciphers to machine-assisted encryption and demonstrates how both mathematics and operational practices determine real-world security. It is not simply an "algorithm" in the modern software sense, and it is not a decryption method or email encryption tool. Therefore, the correct description is that it was a device used for secure communication during WWII.
問題 #21
(Which lesson can be learned from organizations that experience breaches due to poor cryptographic practices?)
答案：D
解題說明：
Breaches tied to poor cryptographic practices often stem from preventable issues: outdated algorithms, weak key management, misconfigured TLS, missing integrity checks, hard-coded secrets, unrotated keys, or improper certificate validation. A key lesson is that organizations must proactively identify and prioritize these risks-exactly what comprehensive risk assessments are designed to do. Effective risk assessment inventories cryptographic assets (keys, certificates, protocols), maps them to business processes, evaluates threats (e.g., MITM, data exfiltration, supply-chain tampering), and finds gaps between current controls and best practices. It also helps ensure crypto decisions align with real-world risk, compliance requirements, and operational constraints. The other options are explicitly wrong: training is relevant because many crypto failures are implementation/configuration errors; audits and updates are essential because cryptographic guidance evolves; and security cannot be "secondary" without increasing breach likelihood and impact.
Therefore, the most defensible lesson is that comprehensive risk assessments are vital for identifying vulnerabilities before attackers exploit them.
問題 #22
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