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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Topic 1: Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) - Principles and operation - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges |
| Topic 2: Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle |
| Topic 3: Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models - Principles: public/private key pairs - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation - Digital signatures: purpose and process |
| Topic 4: Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key - Historical evolution and modern applications - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation |
| Topic 5: Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - HMAC construction and application - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function |
| Topic 6: Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes - Standards and compliance |
>> Introduction-to-Cryptography Detailed Answers <<
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NEW QUESTION # 72
(A security engineer is implementing device authentication as a form of two-factor authentication in a Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) environment. What should be used as a second form of authentication?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
In a PKI environment, a digital certificate is the standard credential used to bind an identity (user, device, service) to a public key, with that binding vouched for by a Certificate Authority. For device authentication, the device typically proves possession of the private key corresponding to the certificate' s public key (for example, during a TLS handshake). As a second factor in a two-factor model, a certificate (often stored in a TPM, smart card, or secure enclave) represents "something you have"-a cryptographic credential anchored to hardware or a managed endpoint. The other listed options (symmetric encryption, asymmetric encryption, digital signature) are cryptographic operations or algorithm classes, not stand-alone authentication factors. A digital signature is a mechanism used within authentication flows, but it is not itself the credential that establishes an enrolled device identity within PKI. In practice, a certificate-based device factor is commonly paired with a knowledge factor (password/PIN) or a biometric factor to achieve true 2FA, but among these choices, the appropriate second form of authentication in PKI terms is the digital certificate.
NEW QUESTION # 73
(What is an example of a block cipher mode of operation?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
A block cipher mode of operation defines how a block cipher (such as AES) is applied to data longer than a single block, and how blocks are linked (or not linked) to provide certain security properties. ECB (Electronic Codebook) is one of the canonical block cipher modes: it encrypts each plaintext block independently using the same key. While ECB is generally discouraged because it leaks patterns (identical plaintext blocks produce identical ciphertext blocks), it is still a valid and historically important mode of operation and is often used as a teaching example of what not to do for structured data. In contrast, SHA-256 is a hash function (one- way digest) and not a mode for block ciphers. DSA is a digital signature algorithm and provides authenticity
/integrity, not encryption mode behavior. RSA is an asymmetric cryptosystem, not a block cipher mode.
Therefore, among the options, ECB is the correct example of a block cipher mode of operation.
NEW QUESTION # 74
(What does nonrepudiation aim to achieve in the context of cryptography?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Nonrepudiation aims to prevent a party from later denying having performed an action, such as sending a message, approving a transaction, or signing a document. In cryptographic systems, nonrepudiation is typically supported by digital signatures, audit logs, and trusted time-stamping: if a message is signed with a private key and verified with the corresponding public key (often bound to an identity via a certificate), the signer can be held accountable for that signed content. This creates evidence that can be used for dispute resolution, compliance, and legal or contractual enforcement. Nonrepudiation is distinct from confidentiality (keeping data secret) and from access control (preventing unauthorized use). While authentication (verifying identity) is related and often a prerequisite, the defining goal is accountability-ensuring that actions can be attributed to entities in a way that is difficult to dispute later. Effective nonrepudiation also depends on secure private key management, certificate validation, and procedures that show the key was under the signer's control at the time. Therefore, the correct answer is holding parties accountable for their actions and transactions.
NEW QUESTION # 75
(What is the correlation between the number of rounds and the key length used in the AES algorithm?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
In AES, the number of rounds is explicitly tied to the key length. AES-128 uses 10 rounds, AES-192 uses 12 rounds, and AES-256 uses 14 rounds. The purpose of additional rounds is to increase diffusion and confusion, strengthening resistance against cryptanalysis as the key schedule and state transformations iterate more times. Although key length primarily affects brute-force resistance, AES's designers and standardization parameters link longer keys with more rounds to maintain security margins across variants, especially considering differences in the key schedule structure. Thus, as key length increases from 128 to 192 to 256 bits, the number of rounds increases correspondingly from 10 to 12 to 14. This relationship is fixed by the AES specification and does not vary dynamically at runtime. Therefore, the correct correlation is that the number of rounds increases as the key length increases.
NEW QUESTION # 76
(What is the value of 23 mod 6?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
The expression 23 mod 6 asks for the remainder when 23 is divided by 6. Modular arithmetic is foundational in cryptography, especially in public-key systems (RSA, Diffie-Hellman, ECC) where operations occur in finite rings or fields. To compute 23 mod 6, identify the largest multiple of 6 that does not exceed 23.
Multiples of 6 are 6, 12, 18, 24. Since 24 is greater than 23, the largest valid multiple is 18. Subtract: 23 # 18
= 5, so the remainder is 5. Therefore, 23 mod 6 = 5, which corresponds to option "05." Modular reduction keeps numbers within a fixed range (0 to modulus#1), enabling stable arithmetic under wraparound behavior.
In cryptographic protocols, this wraparound property is essential for defining groups and ensuring operations remain bounded and consistent.
NEW QUESTION # 77
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