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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Topic 1: Symmetric Encryption | - Block and stream ciphers - AES and legacy algorithms (e.g., DES conceptually) |
| Topic 2: Cryptographic Protocols and Applications | - TLS/SSL conceptual overview - Secure communication design principles |
| Topic 3: Foundations of Cryptography | - Historical and modern cryptography principles - Core concepts of confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation |
| Topic 4: Asymmetric Encryption | - Public key cryptography principles - RSA and ECC fundamentals |
| Topic 5: Hash Functions and Message Authentication | - MAC and HMAC mechanisms - Cryptographic hash functions (e.g., SHA family concepts) |
| Topic 6: Key Management and PKI | - Key exchange and lifecycle management - Certificates, certificate authorities, and PKI structure |
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NEW QUESTION # 87
(How does adding salt to a password improve security?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
A salt is a unique, random value stored alongside a password hash and combined with the password during hashing. Its main security benefit is that it ensures identical passwords do not produce identical hashes across different accounts or systems. If two users choose the same password, their stored hashes will differ because their salts differ, which directly prevents attackers from spotting shared passwords by comparing hashes. Salts also defeat precomputation attacks such as rainbow tables, because an attacker would need to regenerate tables for each possible salt value-a task that becomes infeasible when salts are large and unique per password. Salt does not enforce password complexity rules (that's a policy/validation function), does not guarantee users choose different passwords, and does not prevent password reuse across sites. The correct statement is that salt makes the resulting hash different even for the same password, improving resistance to offline cracking at scale and eliminating the "same hash = same password" shortcut attackers rely on.
NEW QUESTION # 88
(What describes how Counter (CTR) mode encryption functions?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
CTR mode turns a block cipher (like AES) into a stream-like construction by generating a keystream from successive encryptions of a changing input block. Specifically, CTR forms input blocks using a nonce (unique per message) combined with an increasing counter. Each nonce||counter block is encrypted with the block cipher under the shared key, producing a pseudorandom output block. That output is then XORed with plaintext to yield ciphertext (and XORed with ciphertext to recover plaintext). This design enables parallelization (blocks can be generated independently), efficient random access decryption, and avoids chaining dependencies seen in modes like CBC. Option B describes CFB-like behavior; option C describes ECB; option D describes CBC. CTR's security critically depends on never reusing the same nonce/counter sequence with the same key, because reuse would repeat keystream blocks and expose plaintext relationships. Therefore, the correct description is that CTR converts the block cipher into a stream cipher using a counter value and a nonce.
NEW QUESTION # 89
(What type of encryption uses different keys to encrypt and decrypt the message?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Asymmetric encryption (also called public key cryptography) uses a pair of mathematically related keys: a public key and a private key. One key is used to encrypt, and the other is used to decrypt, which is the defining "different keys" property asked in the question. In the common confidentiality use case, a sender encrypts a message using the recipient's public key, and only the recipient can decrypt it using their private key. This solves the key distribution problem inherent in symmetric encryption, where both parties must securely share the same secret key in advance. Asymmetric systems also enable digital signatures: the private key signs (creates a signature) and the public key verifies it, providing authenticity and integrity. Symmetric encryption, by contrast, uses the same shared key for both encryption and decryption (even though internal round keys may exist, it is still one shared secret). "Private key" alone is not a full encryption type, and
"secure" is a generic description rather than a cryptographic category. Therefore, the correct answer is D.
Asymmetric.
NEW QUESTION # 90
(An organization wants to digitally sign its software to guarantee the integrity of its source code. Which key should the customer use to decrypt the digest of the source code?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
When software is digitally signed, the organization computes a cryptographic hash (digest) of the software (or its manifest) and then signs that digest using the organization's private key. Verification works in the opposite direction: the customer (verifier) uses the organization's public key to validate the signature and recover/confirm the signed digest, then independently hashes the received software and compares the result. If the digests match and the signature validates under the public key, the customer has strong assurance that the software has not been altered since it was signed and that it was signed by the holder of the corresponding private key. The customer never needs the organization's private key-sharing it would destroy security and enable forgery. Likewise, the customer's own keys are irrelevant to verifying the publisher's signature. The organization's public key is typically delivered inside a certificate chain (code signing certificate) so the verifier can also validate publisher identity and trust. Therefore, the customer uses the organization's public key for signature verification (often described as "decrypting" the signed digest).
NEW QUESTION # 91
(Which number generator has different results given the same input data?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
A true random number generator (TRNG) produces outputs derived from nondeterministic physical processes (e.g., thermal noise, oscillator jitter, radioactive decay, or other hardware entropy sources). Because the underlying phenomenon is not algorithmically determined by an input seed in the same way as a PRNG, repeated "inputs" (or identical conditions from a software perspective) do not yield the same sequence; the outputs vary unpredictably. By contrast, a pseudorandom number generator (PRNG) is deterministic: given the same seed and internal state, it produces the same output sequence, which is useful for repeatability but means security depends on seed secrecy and proper seeding. "Prime" is not a generator type, and "sequence" is too generic and does not imply nondeterminism. In cryptographic systems, TRNGs (or hardware entropy sources) are often used to seed cryptographically secure PRNGs (CSPRNGs), combining high-quality entropy with efficient generation. Therefore, the generator that can produce different results for the "same input data" is a true random number generator.
NEW QUESTION # 92
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