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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Symmetric Encryption | - Block and stream ciphers - AES and legacy algorithms (e.g., DES conceptually) |
| Hash Functions and Message Authentication | - Cryptographic hash functions (e.g., SHA family concepts) - MAC and HMAC mechanisms |
| Asymmetric Encryption | - Public key cryptography principles - RSA and ECC fundamentals |
| Foundations of Cryptography | - Core concepts of confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Historical and modern cryptography principles |
| Cryptographic Protocols and Applications | - Secure communication design principles - TLS/SSL conceptual overview |
| Key Management and PKI | - Certificates, certificate authorities, and PKI structure - Key exchange and lifecycle management |
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NEW QUESTION # 90
(What is the correlation between the number of rounds and the key length used in the AES algorithm?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
In AES, the number of rounds is explicitly tied to the key length. AES-128 uses 10 rounds, AES-192 uses 12 rounds, and AES-256 uses 14 rounds. The purpose of additional rounds is to increase diffusion and confusion, strengthening resistance against cryptanalysis as the key schedule and state transformations iterate more times. Although key length primarily affects brute-force resistance, AES's designers and standardization parameters link longer keys with more rounds to maintain security margins across variants, especially considering differences in the key schedule structure. Thus, as key length increases from 128 to 192 to 256 bits, the number of rounds increases correspondingly from 10 to
12 to 14. This relationship is fixed by the AES specification and does not vary dynamically at runtime.
Therefore, the correct correlation is that the number of rounds increases as the key length increases.
NEW QUESTION # 91
(Which lesson can be learned from organizations that experience breaches due to poor cryptographic practices?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Breaches tied to poor cryptographic practices often stem from preventable issues: outdated algorithms, weak key management, misconfigured TLS, missing integrity checks, hard-coded secrets, unrotated keys, or improper certificate validation. A key lesson is that organizations must proactively identify and prioritize these risks-exactly what comprehensive risk assessments are designed to do. Effective risk assessment inventories cryptographic assets (keys, certificates, protocols), maps them to business processes, evaluates threats (e.g., MITM, data exfiltration, supply-chain tampering), and finds gaps between current controls and best practices. It also helps ensure crypto decisions align with real-world risk, compliance requirements, and operational constraints. The other options are explicitly wrong: training is relevant because many crypto failures are implementation/configuration errors; audits and updates are essential because cryptographic guidance evolves; and security cannot be "secondary" without increasing breach likelihood and impact.
Therefore, the most defensible lesson is that comprehensive risk assessments are vital for identifying vulnerabilities before attackers exploit them.
NEW QUESTION # 92
(What is the length of the Initialization Vector (IV) in WEP?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) uses the RC4 stream cipher and combines a per-packet Initialization Vector (IV) with a shared secret key to form the RC4 seed for that packet's keystream. The IV in WEP is 24 bits long and is transmitted in the clear as part of the 802.11 frame so the receiver can reconstruct the same per-packet RC4 key stream. The short IV space (2²# possible values) is a major design weakness: on a busy network, IVs repeat frequently, causing keystream reuse. Because RC4 is a stream cipher, keystream reuse enables attackers to derive relationships between plaintexts and recover keys with statistical attacks (notably the Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir (FMS) family of attacks and related improvements). WEP also uses a CRC-32 integrity check (ICV) that is not cryptographically strong and is vulnerable to modification attacks. The 24-bit IV length is therefore a key reason WEP is considered insecure and has been replaced by WPA/WPA2 mechanisms that use stronger key mixing, larger nonces/IVs, and robust integrity protection.
NEW QUESTION # 93
(What type of encryption uses different keys to encrypt and decrypt the message?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Asymmetric encryption (also called public key cryptography) uses a pair of mathematically related keys: a public key and a private key. One key is used to encrypt, and the other is used to decrypt, which is the defining "different keys" property asked in the question. In the common confidentiality use case, a sender encrypts a message using the recipient's public key, and only the recipient can decrypt it using their private key. This solves the key distribution problem inherent in symmetric encryption, where both parties must securely share the same secret key in advance. Asymmetric systems also enable digital signatures: the private key signs (creates a signature) and the public key verifies it, providing authenticity and integrity. Symmetric encryption, by contrast, uses the same shared key for both encryption and decryption (even though internal round keys may exist, it is still one shared secret).
"Private key" alone is not a full encryption type, and "secure" is a generic description rather than a cryptographic category. Therefore, the correct answer is D. Asymmetric.
NEW QUESTION # 94
(Why should a forensic investigator create a hash of a victim's hard drive and of the bitstream copy of the hard drive?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
In digital forensics, investigators must preserve evidence integrity and demonstrate an unbroken chain of custody. Creating a cryptographic hash (such as SHA-256) of the original drive and then hashing the forensic bitstream image provides a strong mathematical assurance that the copy is an exact, bit-for-bit replica.
Because secure hash functions are designed so that any tiny change in data produces a dramatically different digest, matching hashes indicate the image contains identical data to the source at the time of acquisition. This is critical in legal and investigative contexts: analysis is performed on the copy, not the original, to avoid altering evidence. If the hashes match, the investigator can testify that the evidence examined is identical to what was collected, supporting admissibility and credibility. Hashing does not prove who created files, nor does it directly show whether someone "opened the drive"; it specifically validates the integrity and equivalence of the captured image. Therefore, hashing both artifacts is done to verify that the original and the bitstream copy are identical.
NEW QUESTION # 95
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