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| Section | Weight | Objectives |
|---|---|---|
| Cryptography Fundamentals | 20% | - Historical evolution and modern applications - Basic terminology: plaintext, ciphertext, algorithm, key - Core goals: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation |
| Hash Functions & Data Integrity | 15% | - HMAC construction and application - Algorithms: SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-3, MD5 - Properties: collision resistance, one-way function - Uses: integrity checks, password storage, message authentication |
| Implementation & Best Practices | 5% | - Selecting appropriate algorithms and key sizes - Common mistakes and vulnerabilities - Standards and compliance |
| Asymmetric Encryption & Public Key Infrastructure | 25% | - Algorithms: RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman - Principles: public/private key pairs - Certificate lifecycle: creation, validation, revocation - Digital signatures: purpose and process - PKI components: certificates, CAs, trust models |
| Symmetric Encryption | 25% | - Key generation, distribution, and management challenges - Block vs stream ciphers, modes of operation (ECB, CBC, OFB, CFB) - Algorithms: AES, DES, 3DES, Blowfish - Principles and operation |
| Key Management & Secure Protocols | 10% | - Secure protocols: TLS/SSL, IPsec, SSH, PGP - Cryptographic attacks: brute force, birthday, man-in-the-middle - Key generation, storage, exchange, and destruction |
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NEW QUESTION # 76
(Which additional input element can be used to implement integrity in combination with symmetric ciphers?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
Symmetric encryption alone typically provides confidentiality, but it does not automatically provide integrity. Many encryption modes (especially older ones like CBC without authentication) are malleable, meaning an attacker may be able to modify ciphertext and cause predictable changes in plaintext after decryption. To add integrity, systems commonly combine symmetric encryption with a cryptographic hash-based integrity mechanism, such as a hash function used in an HMAC (Hash-based Message Authentication Code) or a dedicated authenticated-encryption mode like GCM that internally uses authentication tags. Among the given options, a hash function is the fundamental additional element that enables integrity checks: it allows construction of a MAC (e.g., HMAC-SHA-256) that the receiver verifies to detect any tampering. An initialization vector and a nonce value are used to ensure uniqueness and randomness properties for encryption but do not, by themselves, guarantee integrity.
An encoding algorithm changes representation, not security. Therefore, the correct additional input element for implementing integrity alongside symmetric encryption is a hash function, typically as part of an HMAC or similar MAC construction.
NEW QUESTION # 77
(Two people want to communicate through secure email. The person creating the email wants to ensure only their friend can decrypt the email. Which key should the person creating the email use to encrypt the message?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
To ensure confidentiality so that only the intended recipient can decrypt an email, the sender must encrypt in a way that only the recipient can reverse. In public key cryptography, that means encrypting with the recipient's public key. The recipient is the only party who should possess the matching private key, so only they can decrypt the ciphertext. This pattern is fundamental to PKI-based secure email systems such as S/MIME and OpenPGP: the sender looks up or is provided the recipient's certificate
/public key, encrypts the message (often by encrypting a randomly generated symmetric session key with the recipient's public key), and the recipient uses their private key to recover the session key and decrypt the content. Encrypting with the sender's private key would not provide confidentiality; it resembles signing because anyone with the sender's public key could "decrypt" it. Encrypting with a private key of the recipient is also incorrect because private keys are not shared and should never leave the recipient's control. Therefore, the correct key to encrypt the message so only the friend can decrypt it is the recipient's public key.
NEW QUESTION # 78
(How does a cryptographic policy contribute to incident response?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
A cryptographic policy defines how encryption, keys, certificates, and integrity mechanisms are used and managed across an organization. During incident response, that policy becomes a playbook for making safe, consistent decisions under pressure. It can specify how to rotate or revoke compromised keys, how to validate and reissue certificates, how to preserve evidence integrity with hashing, and how to securely communicate sensitive incident details (e.g., using approved encrypted channels). It can also define backup encryption requirements and key escrow or recovery procedures, enabling secure data recovery without exposing protected data. Policies typically outline roles and responsibilities (who can access keys, who can approve rekeying), logging requirements, and escalation steps-reducing confusion and preventing ad hoc crypto changes that might worsen exposure. The goal is not to limit encryption; it is to ensure cryptography is used correctly to contain and remediate incidents. Therefore, providing guidelines for secure recovery and communication is the correct contribution of cryptographic policy to incident response.
NEW QUESTION # 79
(A company wants to use certificates issued by a root CA to demonstrate to customers that it is a legitimate company being hosted by a cloud provider. Who needs to trust the root CA public key?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
In a public key infrastructure, trust in a certificate ultimately depends on the relying party's trust anchor set-typically the root CA certificates preinstalled in a customer's browser/OS trust store. For customers to accept the company's certificate as legitimate, the buyer (customer) must trust the root CA public key (or an intermediate chained to it) so they can validate the certificate chain and signatures. The seller (the company) also must trust and rely on the root CA public key to build and present a valid chain and to make operational decisions based on that CA's issuance and revocation mechanisms; practically, the seller selects a CA whose root is widely trusted by customers. The cloud provider's trust is not what makes the certificate valid to customers; the provider may terminate TLS or pass traffic through, but customer validation is based on the chain to a trusted root. Government agencies like the FTC are not part of the cryptographic trust path for TLS certificate validation.
Therefore, among the given options, the correct pairing is the seller and the buyer, reflecting both the issuer selection/usage by the company and the relying-party validation by customers.
NEW QUESTION # 80
(What is used to randomize the initial value when generating Initialization Vectors (IVs)?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
An IV (Initialization Vector) is a value used to ensure that encrypting identical plaintext under the same key produces different ciphertexts, preventing pattern leakage. In many secure designs, the IV must be unique (and often unpredictable) per encryption operation. A common way to ensure uniqueness is to incorporate a nonce-a "number used once." A nonce can be random, pseudo-random, or a counter-based value depending on the mode and security requirements. For example, CTR mode uses a nonce combined with a counter to produce unique input blocks; GCM uses a nonce/IV to ensure unique authentication and encryption behavior. The encryption key should remain stable across many operations and should not be used as the "randomizer" for IV generation; mixing key material into IV creation in an ad hoc way can create reuse or correlation issues. Plaintext and algorithm do not provide the needed uniqueness property. The nonce concept is specifically about ensuring one-time uniqueness of the starting value so that IV reuse does not repeat keystream blocks (stream modes) or reveal plaintext equality (CBC/CTR). Therefore, the correct choice is Nonce.
NEW QUESTION # 81
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