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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Topic 1: Hash Functions and Message Authentication | - Cryptographic hash functions (e.g., SHA family concepts) - MAC and HMAC mechanisms |
| Topic 2: Cryptographic Protocols and Applications | - Secure communication design principles - TLS/SSL conceptual overview |
| Topic 3: Foundations of Cryptography | - Core concepts of confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation - Historical and modern cryptography principles |
| Topic 4: Asymmetric Encryption | - RSA and ECC fundamentals - Public key cryptography principles |
| Topic 5: Symmetric Encryption | - AES and legacy algorithms (e.g., DES conceptually) - Block and stream ciphers |
| Topic 6: Key Management and PKI | - Key exchange and lifecycle management - Certificates, certificate authorities, and PKI structure |
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NEW QUESTION # 77
(Which attack maps hashed values to their original input data?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
A rainbow table attack uses large, precomputed tables that link hash outputs back to likely original inputs (typically passwords). Instead of storing every password#hash pair directly (which would be huge), rainbow tables store chains created by alternating hash operations with reduction functions, allowing attackers to reconstruct candidate plaintexts that produce a given hash. This makes cracking fast , if the target hashes are unsalted and use a known, fast hash function. Salt defeats rainbow tables because the attacker would need separate tables for each salt value, which becomes infeasible when salts are unique and sufficiently large. A dictionary at tack is related but typically computes hashes on the fly from a wordlist rather than using precomputed chain structures. A birthday attack targets collisions, not mapping to original data. Brute-force tries all candidates without precomputation. Because th e question explicitly describes mapping hashed values back to original data via a precomputed approach, the correct choice is Rainbow table.
NEW QUESTION # 78
(Which number generator has different results given the same input data?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
A true random number generator (TRNG) produces outputs derived from nondeterministic physical processes (e.g., thermal noise, oscillator jitter, radioactive decay, or other hardware entropy sources). Because the underlying phenomenon is not algorithmically determined by an input seed in the same way as a PRNG, repeated "inputs" (or identical conditions from a software perspective) do not yield the same sequence; the outputs vary unpredictably. By contrast, a pseudorandom number generator (PRNG) is deterministic: given the same seed and internal state, it produces the same output sequence, which is useful for repeatability but means security depends on seed secrecy and proper seeding. "Prime" is not a generator type, and "sequence" is too generic and does not imply nondeterminism. In cryptographic systems, TRNGs (or hardware entropy sources) are often used to seed cryptographically secure PRNGs (CSPRNGs), combining high-quality entropy with efficient generation. Therefore, the generator that can produce different results for the "same input data" is a true random number generator.
NEW QUESTION # 79
(A Linux user password is identified as follows:
$2a$08$AbCh0RCM8p8FGaYvRLI0H.Kng54gcnWCOQYIhas708UEZRQQjGBh4
Which hash algorithm should be used to salt this password?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
The string format $2a$08$... is a well-known identifier for the bcrypt password hashing scheme. In common password-hash notation, the prefix indicates the algorithm and parameters: "$2a$" denotes bcrypt (version
2a), and "08" indicates the cost factor (work factor) controlling how computationally expensive hashing is.
bcrypt is designed specifically for password storage: it includes a built-in salt and is intentionally slow and adaptive, making brute-force and GPU attacks far more expensive than fast general-purpose hashes like MD5 or SHA-512. NTLM and MD5 are obsolete for secure password storage due to speed and known weaknesses.
SHA-512, while cryptographically strong as a hash, is still too fast for password hashing unless used in a dedicated password-hashing construction (e.g., PBKDF2, scrypt, Argon2) with appropriate parameters and salts. Since the given hash clearly matches bcrypt's encoding, the correct algorithm is bcrypt, which incorporates salting and cost-based key stretching as part of its design.
NEW QUESTION # 80
(Why are large prime numbers important in cryptography?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Large prime numbers are crucial because they enable cryptosystems where certain operations are easy to perform, but reversing them is computationally hard without secret information. In RSA, security is based on the difficulty of factoring a large composite number that is the product of two large primes; multiplying primes is easy, but factoring the product is believed to be hard at sufficient sizes. In Diffie-Hellman and related systems, primes define finite groups (often modulo a large prime) where exponentiation is efficient but the discrete logarithm problem is hard. Primes also help ensure desirable group properties-such as having a large cyclic subgroup-reducing vulnerabilities from small subgroups or weak structure. The value of "large" is that it makes brute-force and known algorithmic attacks infeasible with current computing resources. Large primes do not primarily make encryption faster, nor do they make decryption easier; they are chosen to maximize security margins. While primes can be involved in encoding steps, their importance is security: they form the mathematical foundation for hardness assumptions used by major public-key algorithms. Therefore, the best answer is that they provide security in encryption algorithms.
NEW QUESTION # 81
(Which lesson can be learned from organizations that experience breaches due to poor cryptographic practices?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Breaches tied to poor cryptographic practices often stem from preventable issues: outdated algorithms, weak key management, misconfigured TLS, missing integrity checks, hard-coded secrets, unrotated keys, or improper certificate validation. A key lesson is that organizations must proactively identify and prioritize these risks-exactly what comprehensive risk assessments are designed to do. Effective risk assessment inventories cryptographic assets (keys, certificates, protocols), maps them to business processes, evaluates threats (e.g., MITM, data exfiltration, supply-chain tampering), and finds gaps between current controls and best practices. It also helps ensure crypto decisions align with real-world risk, compliance requirements, and operational constraints. The other options are explicitly wrong: training is relevant because many crypto failures are implementation/configuration errors; audits and updates are essential because cryptographic guidance evolves; and security cannot be "secondary" without increasing breach likelihood and impact.
Therefore, the most defensible lesson is that comprehensive risk assessments are vital for identifying vulnerabilities before attackers exploit them.
NEW QUESTION # 82
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