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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Asymmetric Cryptography | - Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange - Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) - RSA Algorithm - Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) |
| Cryptography Fundamentals | - Cryptographic Terminology - History and Evolution of Cryptography - Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption |
| Applied Cryptography | - VPN Security - SSL/TLS Protocols - Cryptographic Best Practices - PGP and Email Encryption |
| Symmetric Cryptography | - Stream Ciphers - Initialization Vectors (IV) - Block Ciphers (AES, DES, 3DES) - Key Management |
| Cryptanalysis and Attacks | - Social Engineering Prevention - Brute Force and Dictionary Attacks - Common Attack Vectors |
| Hashing and Digital Signatures | - Hash Functions (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256) - Message Authentication Codes (MAC) - Digital Signature Standards |
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NEW QUESTION # 83
(What is the value of 51 mod 11?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
The value 51 mod 11 is the remainder after dividing 51 by 11. Modular arithmetic is widely used in cryptography to keep computations within a finite set of residues, such as in RSA where values are taken modulo n, or in Diffie-Hellman where exponents and group elements are reduced modulo a prime. To compute 51 mod 11, find the largest multiple of 11 less than or equal to 51. Multiples of 11 are 11, 22, 33, 44, 55. The closest without exceeding 51 is 44. Subtracting gives 51 # 44 = 7, so the remainder is 7. Therefore, 51 mod 11 = 7, matching option "07." This remainder is always in the range
0 through 10 because the modulus is 11. Such residue computations underpin the "wraparound" behavior that makes modular exponentiation and inverse computations well-defined in cryptographic groups.
NEW QUESTION # 84
(A Linux user password is identified as follows:
$2a$08$AbCh0RCM8p8FGaYvRLI0H.Kng54gcnWCOQYIhas708UEZRQQjGBh4
Which hash algorithm should be used to salt this password?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
The string format $2a$08$... is a well-known identifier for the bcrypt password hashing scheme. In common password-hash notation, the prefix indicates the algorithm and parameters: "$2a$" denotes bcrypt (version 2a), and "08" indicates the cost factor (work factor) controlling how computationally expensive hashing is. bcrypt is designed specifically for password storage: it includes a built-in salt and is intentionally slow and adaptive, making brute-force and GPU attacks far more expensive than fast general-purpose hashes like MD5 or SHA-512. NTLM and MD5 are obsolete for secure password storage due to speed and known weaknesses. SHA-512, while cryptographically strong as a hash, is still too fast for password hashing unless used in a dedicated password-hashing construction (e.g., PBKDF2, scrypt, Argon2) with appropriate parameters and salts. Since the given hash clearly matches bcrypt's encoding, the correct algorithm is bcrypt, which incorporates salting and cost-based key stretching as part of its design.
NEW QUESTION # 85
(What describes how Counter (CTR) mode encryption functions?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
CTR mode turns a block cipher (like AES) into a stream-like construction by generating a keystream from successive encryptions of a changing input block. Specifically, CTR forms input blocks using a nonce (unique per message) combined with an increasing counter. Each nonce||counter block is encrypted with the block cipher under the shared key, producing a pseudorandom output block. That output is then XORed with plaintext to yield ciphertext (and XORed with ciphertext to recover plaintext). This design enables parallelization (blocks can be generated independently), efficient random access decryption, and avoids chaining dependencies seen in modes like CBC. Option B describes CFB-like behavior; option C describes ECB; option D describes CBC. CTR's security critically depends on never reusing the same nonce/counter sequence with the same key, because reuse would repeat keystream blocks and expose plaintext relationships.
Therefore, the correct description is that CTR converts the block cipher into a stream cipher using a counter value and a nonce.
NEW QUESTION # 86
(What is the value of 51 mod 11?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
The value 51 mod 11 is the remainder after dividing 51 by 11. Modular arithmetic is widely used in cryptography to keep computations within a finite set of residues, such as in RSA where values are taken modulo n, or in Diffie-Hellman where exponents and group elements are reduced modulo a prime. To compute 51 mod 11, find the largest multiple of 11 less than or equal to 51. Multiples of 11 are 11, 22, 33, 44,
55. The closest without exceeding 51 is 44. Subtracting gives 51 # 44 = 7, so the remainder is 7. Therefore, 51 mod 11 = 7, matching option "07." This remainder is always in the range 0 through 10 because the modulus is
11. Such residue computations underpin the "wraparound" behavior that makes modular exponentiation and inverse computations well-defined in cryptographic groups.
NEW QUESTION # 87
(Which is an example of asymmetric encryption?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Asymmetric cryptography uses a public/private key pair where different keys are used for related operations (encryption/decryption or signature/verification). Elliptic-Curve Cryptography (ECC) is a family of asymmetric algorithms built on the mathematics of elliptic curves over finite fields. ECC supports key exchange (ECDH), digital signatures (ECDSA/EdDSA), and other primitives with smaller key sizes for comparable security to traditional discrete-log or RSA systems (e.g., a 256-bit ECC key is often comparable in security to a 3072-bit RSA key, depending on scheme and parameters). By contrast, SHA-256 is a cryptographic hash function (one-way digest), and HMAC is a keyed integrity/authentication construction built from a hash function-neither is encryption. DES is a symmetric block cipher (same key for encryption and decryption). Therefore, the example of asymmetric encryption among the options is ECC.
NEW QUESTION # 88
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