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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Asymmetric Encryption | - RSA and ECC fundamentals - Public key cryptography principles |
| Symmetric Encryption | - AES and legacy algorithms (e.g., DES conceptually) - Block and stream ciphers |
| Cryptographic Protocols and Applications | - TLS/SSL conceptual overview - Secure communication design principles |
| Hash Functions and Message Authentication | - Cryptographic hash functions (e.g., SHA family concepts) - MAC and HMAC mechanisms |
| Key Management and PKI | - Certificates, certificate authorities, and PKI structure - Key exchange and lifecycle management |
| Foundations of Cryptography | - Historical and modern cryptography principles - Core concepts of confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation |
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NEW QUESTION # 23
(What is a characteristic of a hash function?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
A cryptographic hash function maps input data of arbitrary length to a fixed-length digest and is designed to be one-way: given a digest, it should be computationally infeasible to recover the original input (preimage resistance). This one-way property enables many security applications: file integrity checking (any change alters the digest), password storage (combined with salt and slow hashing), digital signatures (signing a digest rather than large data), and commitment schemes. Hash functions are not encryption because they do not support decryption; they intentionally discard information about the input. They also do not use public/private key pairs; those are features of asymmetric cryptography. "Reversible" is the opposite of the intended design goal. A well-designed hash also aims for collision resistance (hard to find two different inputs with the same digest) and second-preimage resistance. Among the answer choices, the defining characteristic that best captures what makes a hash function distinct is that it is one-way.
NEW QUESTION # 24
(What is the correlation between the number of rounds and the key length used in the AES algorithm?)
Answer: D
Explanation:
In AES, the number of rounds is explicitly tied to the key length. AES-128 uses 10 rounds, AES-192 uses 12 rounds, and AES-256 uses 14 rounds. The purpose of additional rounds is to increase diffusion and confusion, strengthening resistance against cryptanalysis as the key schedule and state transformations iterate more times. Although key length primarily affects brute-force resistance, AES's designers and standardization parameters link longer keys with more rounds to maintain security margins across variants, especially considering differences in the key schedule structure. Thus, as key length increases from 128 to 192 to 256 bits, the number of rounds increases correspondingly from 10 to
12 to 14. This relationship is fixed by the AES specification and does not vary dynamically at runtime.
Therefore, the correct correlation is that the number of rounds increases as the key length increases.
NEW QUESTION # 25
(Which mechanism can be applied to protect the integrity of plaintext when using AES?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
AES by itself is a symmetric block cipher that provides confidentiality, but not guaranteed integrity unless used in an authenticated mode. To protect integrity of the plaintext (ensuring it has not been altered), a Message Authentication Code (MAC) can be applied. In the classic Encrypt-then-MAC pattern, the sender encrypts the plaintext with AES and then computes a MAC (often HMAC-SHA-256 or CMAC-AES) over the ciphertext (and relevant headers). The receiver verifies the MAC before attempting decryption, preventing tampering and many padding-oracle style vulnerabilities.
Alternatively, AES can be used in an AEAD mode like AES-GCM, which produces an authentication tag serving a similar purpose, but among the listed options the general integrity mechanism is "MAC." RC4 is an unrelated stream cipher and does not provide integrity. RSA is asymmetric and not the standard integrity add-on for AES-encrypted bulk data. Kerberos is an authentication protocol and key distribution system, not a message integrity primitive. Therefore, to protect plaintext integrity when using AES, the correct mechanism is a Message Authentication Code.
NEW QUESTION # 26
(Which cryptographic operation uses a single key?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Symmetric cryptography uses a single shared secret key for both encryption and decryption. This contrasts with asymmetric cryptography, which uses a key pair (public/private). Symmetric algorithms (like AES, ChaCha20) are efficient and well-suited for bulk data encryption, but they require a secure method for key distribution because both parties must possess the same secret. Hashing is not a keyed operation by default (though HMAC is keyed); it maps arbitrary data to a fixed-size digest and is primarily used for integrity checking, fingerprints, and password hashing constructions. Padding is a data formatting technique (e.g., PKCS#7) used to align plaintext to a block size; it is not a cryptographic "operation" that uses a key.
Therefore, the cryptographic operation characterized by using one key shared between parties is symmetric encryption. In real systems, symmetric encryption is frequently combined with asymmetric methods for key exchange and with MACs/AEAD for integrity, producing the standard hybrid approach used in protocols like TLS and IPsec.
NEW QUESTION # 27
(What is an alternative to using a Certificate Revocation List (CRL) with certificates?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
OCSP is the primary online alternative to CRLs for checking whether a certificate has been revoked. With a CRL, a relying party periodically downloads a list of revoked certificate serial numbers published by the issuing CA (or CRL distribution point). That approach can be bandwidth-heavy, introduces latency between revocation and client awareness, and can result in clients using stale revocation data if updates are infrequent.
OCSP improves this by allowing a client (or a server on the client's behalf) to query an OCSP responder in near real time about the status of a specific certificate (good, revoked, or unknown). In practice, many TLS deployments use OCSP stapling, where the server periodically fetches a signed OCSP response from the CA's responder and "staples" it to the TLS handshake, reducing client-side network calls and improving privacy (the CA doesn't learn which site the client is visiting). Thus, OCSP provides a more timely, certificate- specific revocation status mechanism than CRLs while preserving the CA's signed assurance.
NEW QUESTION # 28
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