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| Section | Objectives |
|---|---|
| Cryptanalysis and Attacks | - Common Attack Vectors - Social Engineering Prevention - Brute Force and Dictionary Attacks |
| Hashing and Digital Signatures | - Hash Functions (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256) - Digital Signature Standards - Message Authentication Codes (MAC) |
| Applied Cryptography | - SSL/TLS Protocols - PGP and Email Encryption - Cryptographic Best Practices - VPN Security |
| Cryptography Fundamentals | - Symmetric vs Asymmetric Encryption - History and Evolution of Cryptography - Cryptographic Terminology |
| Asymmetric Cryptography | - Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange - RSA Algorithm - Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) - Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) |
| Symmetric Cryptography | - Block Ciphers (AES, DES, 3DES) - Stream Ciphers - Key Management - Initialization Vectors (IV) |
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NEW QUESTION # 68
(A Linux user password is identified as follows:
$2a$08$AbCh0RCM8p8FGaYvRLI0H.Kng54gcnWCOQYIhas708UEZRQQjGBh4
Which hash algorithm should be used to salt this password?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
The string format $2a$08$... is a well-known identifier for the bcrypt password hashing scheme. In common password-hash notation, the prefix indicates the algorithm and parameters: "$2a$" denotes bcrypt (version 2a), and "08" indicates the cost factor (work factor) controlling how computationally expensive hashing is. bcrypt is designed specifically for password storage: it includes a built-in salt and is intentionally slow and adaptive, making brute-force and GPU attacks far more expensive than fast general-purpose hashes like MD5 or SHA-512. NTLM and MD5 are obsolete for secure password storage due to speed and known weaknesses. SHA-512, while cryptographically strong as a hash, is still too fast for password hashing unless used in a dedicated password-hashing construction (e.g., PBKDF2, scrypt, Argon2) with appropriate parameters and salts. Since the given hash clearly matches bcrypt's encoding, the correct algorithm is bcrypt, which incorporates salting and cost-based key stretching as part of its design.
NEW QUESTION # 69
(Which mechanism implemented in WPA-Enterprise guards against bit-flipping exploits?)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Bit-flipping exploits target encryption modes or protocols that do not provide strong integrity, allowing attackers to modify ciphertext so that predictable changes occur in plaintext after decryption. To defend against this, protocols add an integrity mechanism that detects tampering. In WPA (including enterprise deployments), TKIP introduced a Message Integrity Check (MIC) called "Michael." The MIC is computed over the frame contents (with additional fields) and verified by the receiver; if an attacker flips bits in transit, the MIC verification fails, and the frame is rejected. While AES (used by WPA2's CCMP) also provides integrity via authenticated encryption, the option presented that directly names the tamper-detection mechanism associated with guarding against bit-flipping is MIC. A pre- shared key is an authentication/keying method (and not enterprise-mode anyway), and a "global encryption key" would be the opposite of what you want-global/static keys worsen security.
Therefore, the intended mechanism that mitigates bit-flipping by detecting unauthorized modifications is the Message Integrity Check.
NEW QUESTION # 70
(What is the value of 51 mod 11?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
The value 51 mod 11 is the remainder after dividing 51 by 11. Modular arithmetic is widely used in cryptography to keep computations within a finite set of residues, such as in RSA where values are taken modulo n, or in Diffie-Hellman where exponents and group elements are reduced modulo a prime. To compute 51 mod 11, find the largest multiple of 11 less than or equal to 51. Multiples of 11 are 11, 22, 33, 44, 55. The closest without exceeding 51 is 44. Subtracting gives 51 # 44 = 7, so the remainder is 7. Therefore, 51 mod 11 = 7, matching option "07." This remainder is always in the range
0 through 10 because the modulus is 11. Such residue computations underpin the "wraparound" behavior that makes modular exponentiation and inverse computations well-defined in cryptographic groups.
NEW QUESTION # 71
(Which cipher uses shifting letters of the alphabet for encryption?)
Answer: B
Explanation:
The Caesar cipher is the classic substitution cipher that encrypts by shifting letters of the alphabet by a fixed number of positions (e.g., shift by 3: A#D, B#E, etc.). It is a monoalphabetic cipher because a single shift value is applied uniformly across the entire message, making it simple and vulnerable to frequency analysis and brute force (only 25 meaningful shifts in the Latin alphabet). Vigenere also involves shifting, but it uses a repeating keyword to vary the shift per character (polyalphabetic), whereas the question's phrasing typically points to the fundamental "shift cipher," which is Caesar. SHA-1 is a cryptographic hash function, not a cipher. Bifid is a fractionation cipher combining Polybius square coordinates and transposition, not a direct shifting method. Therefore, the cipher that uses shifting letters of the alphabet for encryption is the Caesar cipher.
NEW QUESTION # 72
(What is an example of a block cipher mode of operation?)
Answer: A
Explanation:
A block cipher mode of operation defines how a block cipher (such as AES) is applied to data longer than a single block, and how blocks are linked (or not linked) to provide certain security properties. ECB (Electronic Codebook) is one of the canonical block cipher modes: it encrypts each plaintext block independently using the same key. While ECB is generally discouraged because it leaks patterns (identical plaintext blocks produce identical ciphertext blocks), it is still a valid and historically important mode of operation and is often used as a teaching example of what not to do for structured data. In contrast, SHA-256 is a hash function (one- way digest) and not a mode for block ciphers. DSA is a digital signature algorithm and provides authenticity
/integrity, not encryption mode behavior. RSA is an asymmetric cryptosystem, not a block cipher mode.
Therefore, among the options, ECB is the correct example of a block cipher mode of operation.
NEW QUESTION # 73
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